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The recent finding that the FDA-approved antiobesity agent orlistat (tetrahydrolipstatin, Xenical) is a potent inhibitor of the thioesterase domain of fatty acid synthase (FAS) led us to develop a concise and practical asymmetric route to pseudosymmetric 3,4-dialkyl-cis-beta-lactones. The well-documented upregulation of FAS in cancer cells makes this enzyme complex an interesting therapeutic target for cancer. The described route to 3,4-dialkyl- beta -lactones is based on a two-step process involving Calter's catalytic, asymmetric ketene dimerization of acid chlorides followed by a facialselective hydrogenation leading to cis-substituted- beta -lactones. Importantly, the ketene dimer intermediates were found to be stable to flash chromatography, enabling opportunities for subsequent transformations of these optically active, reactive intermediates. Subsequent R-epimerization and R-alkylation or acylation led to trans- beta - lactones and beta -lactones bearing alpha-quaternary carbons, respectively. Several of the ketene dimers and beta-lactones displayed antagonistic activity (apparent Ki in the low micromolar range) in competition with a fluorogenic substrate toward a recombinant form of the thioesterase domain of fatty acid synthase. The best antagonist, a simple phenyl-substituted cis- beta -lactone, displayed an apparent Ki (2.5 ( 0.5 muM) of only 10- fold lower than that of orlistat (0.28 ( 0.06 muM). In addition, mechanistic studies of the ketene dimerization process by Reaction View infrared spectroscopy support previous findings that ketene formation is rate determining. A highly diastereoselective, nucleophile-promoted bis-cyclization process, employing readily available and tractable keto-acid substrates, is described. This methodology provides concise access to bicyclic- and tricyclic-beta-lactones bearing tertiary carbinol centers and quaternary carbons, greatly extending the scope of previous routes to bicyclic-beta-lactones from aldehyde acid substrates. This and related processes may be revealing a subtle interplay between [2 plus 2] cycloaddition and nucleophilecatalyzed aldol lactonization (NCAL) reaction manifolds. An early induction period in the bis-cyclization of keto-acids is confirmed via isolation of the complex between 4- pyrrolopyridine and Modified Mukaiyama reagent N-propyl-2-bromo pyridinium triflate. Dyotropic rearrangements of tricyclic keto beta-lactones derived in high yields and >19:1 diastereoselectivity from readily available 1, 3-dione acids is described. Zn (II) salts were found to be most efficient for affecting dyotropic 1, 2-acyl migrations where as sub stoichiometric TMSOTf was found to execute a delta-lactone migration providing bis gamma-lactone in modest yields. Enantioselective desymmetrization with inexpensive (S) - tetramisole has been demonstrated to provide direct evidence of Lewis base involvement in the Nucleophile Promoted Bis-cyclization of keto-acids. Further studies using TsCl as the carboxylate activating agent instead of modified Mukaiyama reagent and catalytic tetramisole are described for achieving practical, catalytic, enantioselective synthesis of beta-lactones from keto-acids. Preliminary studies toward conjugate addition- lactonization pathway provided a hint as to the complexity involved to affect this transformation under the bis-cyclization conditions. An alternate hypotheses concerning the possibility of isomerization-dienolate formation - lactonization is experimentally proven. Additionally, applications of these and related findings in the intramolecular Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction with cyclic ketones have been investigated which provide new avenues of synthetic methodology development.

A study of solid base catalysis was conducted in three main categories, namely condensation reactions of primary alcohols, alkylation reactions of dihydroxybenzene and hydrogenation reactions of phenol. Ethanol was converted into 1-butanol over alkali earth metal oxides and modified MgO catalysts (1-20 % yield). The MgO catalyst exhibits the highest reaction activity and 1-butanol selectivity amongst the catalysts studied. Reaction of various possible intermediates (acetaldehyde, crotonaldehyde, crotylalcohol, butanal) and ethanol over MgO (1 bar, 450 oC) revealed that the dimerisation reaction does not proceed primarily through the aldol condensation reaction. The reaction is proposed to proceed through a mechanism, previously proposed by Yang and Meng, in which a C-H bond in the -position in ethanol is activated by the basic metal oxide, and condenses with another molecule of ethanol, by dehydration to form 1-butanol. iv A self-condensation reaction of propanol was carried out at atmospheric pressure over MgO as catalyst. The reaction gave 2-methylpentanol and propionaldehyde as the major products. The introduction of hydrogen before and during the reaction enhanced the catalyst selectivity to 2- methylpentanol. The effect of possible reaction intermediates on the catalyst selectivity and the mechanism of the reaction were investigated over MgO and indicated the important role of hydrogen transfer in the reaction. The highest selectivity (69 %) was achieved in the presence of hydrogen at 450 oC with propanol conversion of 24 %. Condensation reactions of ethanol with butanol or propanol to higher alcohols were carried out at atmospheric pressure over various solid-base catalysts. The ability of ethanol to be activated at either the CH2 or CH3 units played a significant role in the formation of a wide range of long chain alcohols. The major products observed during the reaction between ethanol and butanol were 2-ethylbutanol, 1-hexanol and to a lesser extent 2-ethyhexanol. The main products in the reaction of ethanol and propanol were 2-methylbutanol, 1-pentanol and butanol. Trace amounts of 2- methylpentanol were also observed. The vapour phase alkylation of catechol over supported cesium catalysts gave good selectivity to guaiacol formation. The TPD studies of the catalysts used indicated that the results can be correlated with the presence of weak basic sites on the catalyst. The gas phase selective hydrogenation of phenol to cyclohexanone was investigated over palladium supported catalysts in order to clarify the influence of the support on products distribution. High selectivities towards cyclohexanone (about 86 %) were observed on palladium supported on high surface area titanium oxide supports. On the basis of the TPD studies, it has been suggested that the basic properties of the support strongly influence the adsorption-desorption of phenol and products, and are therefore responsible for the selectivity towards the reaction products

Yes / Improved synthetic conditions allow preparation of TMSCCl3 in good yield (70 %) and excellent purity. Compounds of the type NBu4X [X=Ph3SiF2 (TBAT), F (tetrabutylammonium fluoride, TBAF), OAc, Cl and Br] act as catalytic promoters for 1,4‐additions to a range of cyclic and acyclic nitroalkenes, in THF at 0–25 °C, typically in moderate to excellent yields (37–95 %). TBAT is the most effective promoter and bromide the least effective. Multinuclear NMR studies (1H, 19F, 13C and 29Si) under anaerobic conditions indicate that addition of TMSCCl3 to TBAT (both 0.13 M ) at −20 °C, in the absence of nitroalkene, leads immediately to mixtures of Me3SiF, Ph3SiF and NBu4CCl3. The latter is stable to at least 0 °C and does not add nitroalkene from −20 to 0 °C, even after extended periods. Nitroalkene, in the presence of TMSCCl3 (both 0.13 M at −20 °C), when treated with TBAT, leads to immediate formation of the 1,4‐addition product, suggesting the reaction proceeds via a transient [Me3Si(alkene)CCl3] species, in which (alkene) indicates an Si⋅⋅⋅O coordinated nitroalkene. The anaerobic catalytic chain is propagated through the kinetic nitronate anion resulting from 1,4 CCl3− addition to the nitroalkene. This is demonstrated by the fact that isolated NBu4[CH2=NO2] is an efficient promoter. Use of H2C=CH(CH2)2CH=CHNO2 in air affords radical‐derived bicyclic products arising from aerobic oxidation. / Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Grant EP/K000578/1.

Betanina e indicaxantina foram obtidas e purificadas e a hidrólise térmica de betanina foi investigada em diferentes pHs, concentrações de tampão, temperaturas e com a adição de sais. Para a decomposição de indicaxantina, foi realizado um estudo em diferentes pHs. Tampões acetato e citrato se mostraram adequados para estudos com betanina, dentro de sua faixa de tamponamento. Os experimentos realizados com tampão fosfato indicaram a ocorrência de catálise geral pelo íon fosfato presente no tampão. O efeito dos sais sobre a hidrólise de betanina foi investigado em pHs 3 e 6,2, com a adição de sais de sódio, amônio e sais cloretos. p-Toluenosulfonato de sódio, cloreto de amônio e cloreto tetrabutilamônio foram os sais que apresentaram maior efeito sobre a constante cinética observada de hidrólise de betanina. A hidrólise das duas betalaínas apresentou um comportamento semelhante com a variação do pH e o ajuste multiparamétrico dos dados sugere que a catálise básica específica é a principal responsável pela hidrólise de betanina e indicaxantina. Um modelo que sugere a abertura do anel 1,2,3,4-tetrahidropiridínico das betalaínas é proposto para explicar o efeito do pH sobre a constante cinética de decomposição determinada em meio ácido. / Betanin and indicaxanthin were obtained and purified and the thermal hydrolysis of betanin was investigated at different pH, buffer concentration, temperature and in the presence of different salts. For the decomposition of indicaxanthin, a study was conducted at different pHs. Acetate buffer and citrate buffer proved to be suitable for the study of betanin. The experiments carried out with phosphate buffer indicated the occurrence of general base catalysis by phosphate ion present in the buffer. The effect of salts on the betanin hydrolysis was investigated at pH 3 and 6.2 with the addition of sodium salts, ammonium salts and chlorides. Sodium p-toluenesulfonate, ammonium chloride and tetrabutylammonium chloride had the larger effects on the observed rate constant for the hydrolysis of betanin. The variation of pH resulted in similar hydrolysis profile for both betalains studied and multiparameter fitting of the data suggests that the specific base catalysis is primarily responsible for the hydrolysis of betanin and indicaxanthin. A model that suggests the opening of the 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine ring of betalains is proposed to explain the effect of pH on the decomposition rate constant under acidic conditions.

Betanina e indicaxantina foram obtidas e purificadas e a hidrólise térmica de betanina foi investigada em diferentes pHs, concentrações de tampão, temperaturas e com a adição de sais. Para a decomposição de indicaxantina, foi realizado um estudo em diferentes pHs. Tampões acetato e citrato se mostraram adequados para estudos com betanina, dentro de sua faixa de tamponamento. Os experimentos realizados com tampão fosfato indicaram a ocorrência de catálise geral pelo íon fosfato presente no tampão. O efeito dos sais sobre a hidrólise de betanina foi investigado em pHs 3 e 6,2, com a adição de sais de sódio, amônio e sais cloretos. p-Toluenosulfonato de sódio, cloreto de amônio e cloreto tetrabutilamônio foram os sais que apresentaram maior efeito sobre a constante cinética observada de hidrólise de betanina. A hidrólise das duas betalaínas apresentou um comportamento semelhante com a variação do pH e o ajuste multiparamétrico dos dados sugere que a catálise básica específica é a principal responsável pela hidrólise de betanina e indicaxantina. Um modelo que sugere a abertura do anel 1,2,3,4-tetrahidropiridínico das betalaínas é proposto para explicar o efeito do pH sobre a constante cinética de decomposição determinada em meio ácido. / Betanin and indicaxanthin were obtained and purified and the thermal hydrolysis of betanin was investigated at different pH, buffer concentration, temperature and in the presence of different salts. For the decomposition of indicaxanthin, a study was conducted at different pHs. Acetate buffer and citrate buffer proved to be suitable for the study of betanin. The experiments carried out with phosphate buffer indicated the occurrence of general base catalysis by phosphate ion present in the buffer. The effect of salts on the betanin hydrolysis was investigated at pH 3 and 6.2 with the addition of sodium salts, ammonium salts and chlorides. Sodium p-toluenesulfonate, ammonium chloride and tetrabutylammonium chloride had the larger effects on the observed rate constant for the hydrolysis of betanin. The variation of pH resulted in similar hydrolysis profile for both betalains studied and multiparameter fitting of the data suggests that the specific base catalysis is primarily responsible for the hydrolysis of betanin and indicaxanthin. A model that suggests the opening of the 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine ring of betalains is proposed to explain the effect of pH on the decomposition rate constant under acidic conditions.

Synthesis and evaluation of catalytic performances of novel bifunctional 2- aminoDMAP-Thiourea/ Sulfonamide/ Squaramide organocatalysts derived from trans-(R,R)-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine forms the main goal of this thesis. For this purpose, direct selective mono-N-pyridilization of trans-(R,R)-cyclohexane-1,2- diamine via Pd and Cu catalysis is described successfully first. Facile preparation of chiral 2-aminoDMAP core catalaphore led to the development of various 2- aminoDMAP- Thiourea/ Sulfonamides/ Squaramides as bifunctional acid/base organocatalyst libraries (most in two-steps overall) which showed good results in asymmetric conjugate addition of 1,3-dicarbonyls to trans-(&beta / )-nitrostyrene. Enantiomeric excesses (ee) up to 93% were attained.

This thesis presents the results and discussion of the investigation of the effects of Brönsted bases on the kinetics and thermodynamics of two proton-coupled electron transfer processes: the mediated oxidation of glutathione and the electrochemical oxidation of hydroquinone. Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is the name given to reactions that involve the transfer of electron(s) accompanied by the exchange of proton(s). PCETs are found in many chemical and biological processes, some of current technological relevance such as the oxygen reduction reaction in fuel cells, which involves the transfer of four electrons and four protons (4e-, 4H+); or the splitting of water into protons (4H+), electrons (4e-) and oxygen (O2) efficiently achieved in photosynthesis. The study of PCET mechanisms is imperative to understanding biological processes as well as to developing more efficient technological applications. However, there are still many unanswered questions regarding the kinetic and thermodynamic performance of PCETs, and especially about the effect of different proton acceptors on the rate and mechanism of PCET reactions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Brönsted bases as proton acceptors on the kinetics and thermodynamics of two model PCET processes, the oxidation of glutathione and hydroquinone. The analysis presented in this thesis provides insight into the influence of different proton acceptors on the mechanism of PCET and it does so by studying these reactions from a different angle, that one of the acid-base catalysis theory which has been successfully applied to the investigation of numerous chemical reactions coupled to proton transfer. We hope future research of PCETs can benefit from the knowledge of acid-base catalysis to better understand these reactions at a molecular level.

A reação peroxioxalato é o sistema quimiluminescente não enzimático de maior eficiência, alcançando rendimentos quânticos de até 50%. A quimiluminescência deste sistema vem sendo amplamente utilizada em aplicações analíticas e bioanalíticas visando a detecção de analitos de interesses biológicos e medicinais. O presente trabalho consistiu em se estudar a reação peroxioxalato com diferentes catalisadores e determinação de seu mecanismo em condições experimentais distintas das que vinham sendo estudadas até o momento, visando sua adaptação a meios aquosos para futuras aplicações. Foi estudada a utilização do salicilato de sódio como catalisador deste sistema em meio puramente orgânico, em substituição ao imidazol, e verificou-se a atuação do salicilato como catalisador básico geral e/ou específico. O rendimento quântico máximo desta transformação foi da ordem de 10-3 E mol-1. Ensaios cinéticos de emissão também foram realizados com ésteres oxálicos de diferentes reatividades em um sistema binário composto por 1,2-dimetoxietano/água contendo tampão fosfato como catalisador, em diferentes valores de pH. Nestas condições se observou a ocorrência de catálise ácida geral e catálise básica geral, uma vez que as constantes de velocidade se mostraram dependentes da concentração de tampão no meio reacional. Além disso, também se utilizou salicilato de sódio como catalisador no sistema binário 1,2-dimetoxietano/água, o qual também apresentou um papel catalítico importante no percurso desta transformação com diferentes ésteres oxálicos. Verificou-se nestes estudos a boa reprodutibilidade da reação peroxioxalato com salicilato de sódio como catalisador em meios parcialmente aquosos, que pode ampliar a utilização deste sistema quimiluminescente em aplicações analíticas e bioanalíticas. Quando se realizou os ensaios em um meio majoritariamente aquoso, o salicilato não se mostrou um catalisador eficiente, porém, mesmo sem catalisador, a reação peroxioxalato se mostrou reprodutível nestas condições / The peroxyoxalate reaction is the non-enzymatic chemiluminescence system with the highest efficiency, achieving quantum yields of up to 50%. The chemiluminescence of this system has been widely used in analytical and bionanalytical applications in order to detect analytes of biological and medicinal interests. The present work consisted in a study of the peroxyoxalate reaction with different catalysts and the determination of its mechanism in experimental conditions different from those studied before, aiming its adaptation to aqueous media for future applications. The use of sodium salicylate as base catalyst for this system in pure organic medium, in substitution to imidazole, was studied and shown that salicylate acts as a general and/or specific base catalyst. The maximum quantum yield obtained for the transformation in these conditions was in the order of 10-3 E mol-1. Emission experiments were also performed in a binary solvent system composed of 1,2- dimethoxyethane/aqueous phosphate buffer at different pH values as catalyst, using oxalic esters with different reactivities. In these conditions the occurrence of general acid catalysis and general base catalysis was observed, since the rate constants proved to be dependent on the buffer concentration. In addition, sodium salicylate was also used as catalyst in the binary 1,2-dimethoxyethane/water system with different oxalic esters, indicating its important catalytic role in the transformation. These studies allowed it to establish a reproducible peroxyoxalate system in partially aqueous media using sodium salicylate as base catalyst, which may increase the use of the chemiluminescence of this system in analytical and bioanalytical applications. However, when the experiments were performed in a medium containing mostly water, salicylate did not act as an efficient catalyst in these conditions. Even in the absence of catalyst, the reaction proved to be reproducible in the medium containing mostly water as solvent

A reação peroxioxalato é o sistema quimiluminescente não enzimático de maior eficiência, alcançando rendimentos quânticos de até 50%. A quimiluminescência deste sistema vem sendo amplamente utilizada em aplicações analíticas e bioanalíticas visando a detecção de analitos de interesses biológicos e medicinais. O presente trabalho consistiu em se estudar a reação peroxioxalato com diferentes catalisadores e determinação de seu mecanismo em condições experimentais distintas das que vinham sendo estudadas até o momento, visando sua adaptação a meios aquosos para futuras aplicações. Foi estudada a utilização do salicilato de sódio como catalisador deste sistema em meio puramente orgânico, em substituição ao imidazol, e verificou-se a atuação do salicilato como catalisador básico geral e/ou específico. O rendimento quântico máximo desta transformação foi da ordem de 10-3 E mol-1. Ensaios cinéticos de emissão também foram realizados com ésteres oxálicos de diferentes reatividades em um sistema binário composto por 1,2-dimetoxietano/água contendo tampão fosfato como catalisador, em diferentes valores de pH. Nestas condições se observou a ocorrência de catálise ácida geral e catálise básica geral, uma vez que as constantes de velocidade se mostraram dependentes da concentração de tampão no meio reacional. Além disso, também se utilizou salicilato de sódio como catalisador no sistema binário 1,2-dimetoxietano/água, o qual também apresentou um papel catalítico importante no percurso desta transformação com diferentes ésteres oxálicos. Verificou-se nestes estudos a boa reprodutibilidade da reação peroxioxalato com salicilato de sódio como catalisador em meios parcialmente aquosos, que pode ampliar a utilização deste sistema quimiluminescente em aplicações analíticas e bioanalíticas. Quando se realizou os ensaios em um meio majoritariamente aquoso, o salicilato não se mostrou um catalisador eficiente, porém, mesmo sem catalisador, a reação peroxioxalato se mostrou reprodutível nestas condições / The peroxyoxalate reaction is the non-enzymatic chemiluminescence system with the highest efficiency, achieving quantum yields of up to 50%. The chemiluminescence of this system has been widely used in analytical and bionanalytical applications in order to detect analytes of biological and medicinal interests. The present work consisted in a study of the peroxyoxalate reaction with different catalysts and the determination of its mechanism in experimental conditions different from those studied before, aiming its adaptation to aqueous media for future applications. The use of sodium salicylate as base catalyst for this system in pure organic medium, in substitution to imidazole, was studied and shown that salicylate acts as a general and/or specific base catalyst. The maximum quantum yield obtained for the transformation in these conditions was in the order of 10-3 E mol-1. Emission experiments were also performed in a binary solvent system composed of 1,2- dimethoxyethane/aqueous phosphate buffer at different pH values as catalyst, using oxalic esters with different reactivities. In these conditions the occurrence of general acid catalysis and general base catalysis was observed, since the rate constants proved to be dependent on the buffer concentration. In addition, sodium salicylate was also used as catalyst in the binary 1,2-dimethoxyethane/water system with different oxalic esters, indicating its important catalytic role in the transformation. These studies allowed it to establish a reproducible peroxyoxalate system in partially aqueous media using sodium salicylate as base catalyst, which may increase the use of the chemiluminescence of this system in analytical and bioanalytical applications. However, when the experiments were performed in a medium containing mostly water, salicylate did not act as an efficient catalyst in these conditions. Even in the absence of catalyst, the reaction proved to be reproducible in the medium containing mostly water as solvent