L’objectif de mon étude était de décrire à l’aide d’analyses multivariables et d’espèces indicatrices la biogéographie automnale du zooplancton du sud-est de la Mer de Beaufort en 2002. Une communauté néritique, caractérisée par un régime herbivore et le taxon dominant Pseudocalanus spp., occupait le plateau du Mackenzie et la baie de Franklin. Deux communautés océaniques, représentées principalement par des omnivores et des carnivores, étaient localisées dans la polynie du Golfe d’Amundsen et sur le talus continental, respectivement. L’assemblage de la polynie présentait la biomasse la plus élevée et Calanus hyperboreus, Metridia longa, Oithona similis et Oncaea borealis en constituaient les espèces dominantes et indicatrices. Cette répartition des assemblages était influencée essentiellement par la topographie et la dynamique du couvert de glace au cours de la saison de production biologique. Ainsi, il est prédit qu’une réduction de la banquise, telle qu’anticipée dans le présent contexte de réchauffement climatique, affectera les patrons de distribution du zooplancton, un élément clé de l’écosystème marin de cette région arctique. / The objective of my study was to describe the biogeography of the zooplankton in the southeastern Beaufort Sea in the fall 2002 by means of multivariate and indicator species analysis. A neritic community characterized by herbivory and the dominant taxon Pseudocalanus spp., occurred on the Mackenzie shelf and in Franklin Bay. Two oceanic communities, in which omnivore and carnivore feeding modes dominated, were located in the Amundsen Gulf Polynya and over the continental slope respectively. The polynya assemblage displayed the highest biomass with the dominant species Calanus hyperboreus, Metridia longa, Oithona similis, and Oncaea borealis as indicator species. This repartition of zooplankton assemblages was influenced mostly by the topography and the ice cover dynamic during the season of high biological production. Hence, it is predicted that a reduction in ice cover, as anticipated in the present context of global warming, will alter the distribution patterns of zooplankton, a key element of the marine ecosystem in the Arctic.

La distribution circumpolaire de la morue arctique (Boreogadus saida) s’étend dans toutes les mers arctiques. La morue arctique occupe une place unique dans le réseau alimentaire marin arctique en assurant le transfert d’énergie entre les espèces des niveaux trophiques inférieurs et les grands prédateurs arctiques tels que les mammifères et les oiseaux marins. Afin de limiter la vulnérabilité des morues juvéniles à la prédation et/ou au cannibalisme à la fin de la courte saison de croissance en Arctique, la stratégie de reproduction de cette espèce clé vise l’atteinte d’une taille pré-hivernale maximale pour les juvéniles. Deux mécanismes adaptatifs principaux, soit la période d’éclosion et la croissance initiale, influencent la variabilité dans la survie des morues arctiques juvéniles en fonction des conditions environnementales. Dans un écosystème en mutation caractérisé par une forte variabilité saisonnière et interannuelle, les dynamiques d’éclosion et de croissance de la morue arctique ont expressément besoin d’être étudiées. Au cours de la présente étude doctorale, j’ai déterminé la date d’éclosion des morues échantillonnées d’avril à septembre 2004 dans le sud-est de la mer de Beaufort. Les résultats obtenus suggèrent l’existence de deux populations distinctes de larves de morue arctique dans la région d’étude. D’une part, une population côtière dont l’éclosion hâtive (janvier à mars) s’effectuerait à l’intérieur du refuge thermique (T ≥ -0,47) occasionné par les conditions estuariennes du lac Herlinveaux qui s’étend sous la glace côtière en hiver. D’autre part, une population du large dont l’éclosion serait retardée jusqu’au printemps (avril à juin) et coïnciderait avec la dislocation du couvert de glace marine ainsi que le déclenchement vernal de la production biologique sur le plateau Mackenzie et dans le golfe d’Amundsen. Les missions d’échantillonnage automnales de 2002 à 2006 ont permis de décrire la variabilité interannuelle dans les patrons d’éclosion des juvéniles de morue arctique. Cette variabilité repose principalement sur la proportion relative des morues survivantes d’éclosion hâtive pour chaque année échantillonnée et semble reliée aux variations des facteurs environnementaux dominants de l’habitat. En définitive, cette étude doctorale a permis de mieux documenter la stratégie de reproduction de la morue arctique dans le sud-est de la mer de Beaufort permettant de maximiser la taille des juvéniles à l’aube du premier hiver sous la glace. / Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) is widely distributed in circumpolar Arctic seawaters and plays an important role in transferring energy from lower trophic levels to higher predators in the Arctic marine food web. To limit vulnerability of young Arctic cod to predation and/or cannibalism at the end of short Arctic summers, reproductive strategy of this key species has evolved to reach the largest pre-winter size of cod juveniles. Two adaptative mechanisms strongly influence variability in survival of juvenile Arctic cod in relation to environmental conditions: the hatching season and early growth. In a changing Arctic climate that exhibits interannual variations and strong seasonality, hatching and growth dynamics of Arctic cod urgently need to be address. In this study, we first determined the individual hatch dates of juvenile Arctic cod sampled in southeastern Beaufort Sea during fall expeditions over a five-year period (2002-2006) and from April to August in 2004. The results suggest the existence of two distinct populations of larval Arctic cod in the study area. First, an inshore population that hatches early in winter (January to March) in the thermal refuge (T ≥ -0.47) provided by the estuarine waters of Mackenzie Lake extending under landfast ice. Second, an offshore population of delayed hatching (April to June) that coincide with the ice break-up and the vernal onset of biological productivity on the Mackenzie Shelf and in the Amundsen Gulf. The interannual variability (2002-2006) documented in hatching patterns of juvenile cod results from the relative importance of early-winter hatchers surviving each year and is partly related to variations in dominant environmental factor in the habitat. Overall, this study documents the reproductive strategy of Arctic cod in southeastern Beaufort Sea that aim to maximize size of juvenile at the onset of their first winter under the ice.

L’objectif principal de ce mémoire était d’évaluer et d’interpréter les changements interannuels dans la production primaire nette du phytoplancton et des diatomées en particulier, à partir d’un suivi temporel de la distribution verticale et de l’inventaire des nutriments dans le sud-est de la mer de Beaufort (2003-2011) et le nord de la baie de Baffin (1997-1999; 2005-2011). En mer de Beaufort, une augmentation de la consommation de nitrate était cohérente avec l’approfondissement de la nitracline par le phytoplancton du maximum sub-superficiel de chlorophylle. Pour la baie de Baffin, les résultats suggèrent une baisse de la productivité associée à une augmentation de la stratification et un mélange réduit. L’analyse des rapports de consommation pour les différents nutriments ainsi que ceux de la composition élémentaire de la matière organique particulaire indique que ces changements sont causés principalement par les diatomées en réponse aux récentes perturbations environnementales subies par l’océan Arctique.

Thesis (MScConEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: I evaluated the impact of Prosopis invasion and clearing on ecological structure, function and agricultural productivity in heavily grazed Nama Karoo rangeland on two sheep farms near the town of Beaufort West in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. My aims were to (1) determine the effects of invasion and clearing on rangeland vegetation composition, diversity (alien and indigenous species richness) and structure (alien and indigenous species cover), soil vegetation cover (plant canopy and basal cover) and agricultural productivity (grazing capacity), (2) describe the vegetation processes that underlay the invasion and clearing impacts and (3) evaluate the success of clearing in facilitating unaided restoration of ecological structure, function and agricultural productivity in formerly invaded rangeland. I hypothesised that invasion would significantly change rangeland vegetation composition and structure, leading to greater alien species richness and cover and lower indigenous species richness and cover while clearing would lead to lower alien species diversity and cover and greater indigenous species richness and cover. In addition I hypothesized that invasion would reduce rangeland plant canopy and basal cover and grazing capacity while clearing would substantially increase them. Finally I predicted that vegetation composition, alien and indigenous species cover and richness, plant canopy and basal cover and grazing capacity would revert to pre-invasion status and levels within four to six years of clearing. My results suggest that in heavily grazed Nama Karoo rangeland Prosopis invasion (~15 percent canopy cover) and clearing can significantly change rangeland vegetation composition, with invasion leading to greater alien species cover and lower indigenous species richness, while clearing leads to lower alien species richness and cover and greater indigenous species richness and cover. However invasion seems to have no effect on alien species richness and overall indigenous species cover. Clearing appears to facilitate the spontaneous restoration of alien species cover and indigenous species richness within four to six years but not species composition, alien species richness and indigenous species cover. In addition my results also indicate that Prosopis invasion can lower rangeland plant canopy and basal cover and grazing capacity while clearing, even under heavy grazing, can substantially raise them. Clearing however does not seem to facilitate the restoration of rangeland plant canopy and basal cover and grazing capacity to pre-invasion levels within four to six years after clearing. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ek het die impak van Prosopis indringing en verwydering van indringers op ekologiese struktuur, funksie en landbou produktiwiteit in ‘n swaar beweide Nama Karoo gebied op twee skaapplase naby Beaufort-Wes in die Wes-Kaap provinsie van Suid-Afrika geëvalueer. My doelwitte was om (1) te bepaal wat die gevolge van die indringing en verwydering van indringers op die natuurlike plantegroei samestelling, diversiteit (uitheemse en inheemse spesiesrykheid) en struktuur (uitheemse en inheemse spesies bedekking) sal wees, sowel as die effek op plantegroei bedekking (kroon en basalebedekking) en landbou produktiwiteit (weidingkapasiteit), (2) die plantegroei prosesse te beskryf wat onderliggend deur die impakte van indringing en verwydering van indringers veroorsaak word, en (3) die sukses van die verwydering van indringers te evalueer deur die fasilitering van blote restorasie van ekologiese struktuur en funksie en landbou produktiwiteit in voorheen ingedringde gebiede. My hipotese is dat indringing ‘n aansienlike verandering in natuurlike plantegroeisamestelling en struktuur sal veroorsaak, wat sal lei tot groter uitheemse spesiesrykheid en bedekking met minder inheemse spesiesrykheid en bedekking, terwyl die verwydering van indringers sou lei tot minder uitheemse spesie diversiteit en bedekking met 'n groter inheemse spesiesrykheid en bedekking. Verder vermoed ek dat indringing die natuurlike kroon- en basalebedekking en weidingkapasiteit sal verminder, terwyl die verwydering van indringers dit aansienlik sal verhoog. Ten slotte voorspel ek dat plantegroei samestelling, uitheemse en inheemse spesiesbedekking en -rykheid, kroon- en basalebedekking en weidingkapasiteit sou terugkeer na voor-indringing status en vlakke binne vier tot ses jaar na die verwydering van indringers. My resultate daarop dat die indringing van Prosopis (~ 15 persent kroonbedekking) en die verwydering van indringers in swaar beweide Nama Karoo gebiede ‘n aansienlike verandering in die gebied se natuurlike plantegroei samestelling toon, waar indringing gelei het tot groter uitheemse spesiesbedekking en minder inheemse spesiesrykheid, terwyl die verwydering van indringers lei tot minder uitheemse spesiesrykheid en groter inheemse spesiesrykheid en - bedekking. Dit lyk egter of indringing geen effek op uitheemse spesiesrykheid en algehele inheemse spesiesbedekking het nie. Die verwydering van indringers blyk om die spontane herstel van indringerbedekking en inheemse spesiesrykheid binne vier tot ses jaar te fasiliteer, maar nie spesiesamestelling, uitheemse spesiesrykheid of inheemse spesiesbedekking nie. Benewens dui my resultate ook aan dat Prosopis indringing die natuurlike kroon- en basalebedekking sowel as weidingskapasiteit verlaag, terwyl die verwydering van indringers, selfs onder swaar beweiding, die bedekking aansienlik kan verhoog. Verwydering van indringers lyk egter nie asof dit die herstel van die gebied se natuurlike kroon- en basalebedekking en weidingkapasiteit na voor-indringing vlakke toe kan fasiliteer binne vier tot ses jaar na die verwydering van indringers nie.

Tableau d’honneur de la Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales, 2008-2009 / Les flux de carbone organIque particulaire (POC) sont des déterminants clés de la régulation du climat sur Terre. Les rapides changements climatiques qui affectent les hautes latitudes nordiques sont susceptibles de modifier abruptement la dynamique des flux de POC dans l'océan Arctique. Les implications de telles modifications pour le réseau alimentaire marin et le climat sont inconnues. Afin d'examiner le contrôle physique et biologique des flux verticaux de POC dans l'océan Arctique, des pièges séquentiels à particules ont été mouillés dans la région du plateau canadien de la mer de Beaufort. Une . première étude sur le talus continental a révélé le fonctionnement horizontal partiel des flux de POC dans les mers englacées, puisqu'environ la moitié du flux vertical récolté à cet endroit a été relié à l'advection latérale de particules par la convection thermohaliQe. Ainsi, advenant un accroissement de la quantité de matériel organique ·produite dans un océan Arctique à couvert de glace estival absent, la séquestration de POC serait augmentée à cause de la formation d'un plus grand volume de glace saisonnière. L'investigation subséquente du cycle annuel d'export de POC sur le plateau a permis d'élaborer un modèle conceptuel de cet écosystème qui varie selon l'importance relative des apports de POC labile ou réfractaire. Ce modèle suggère que si les changements climatiques induisent une augmentation des apports terrigènes et de détritus sur les plateaux arctiques, le développement d'un écosystème basé sur le recyclage du POC serait favorisé. Finalement, l'examen de la variabilité interannuelle des flux de POC en marge du plateau ~ révélé que les flux verticaux les plus élevés étaient détectés en concomitance avec un retrait tardif des glaces, une forte floraison pulsée et un mismatch apparent avec les consommateurs pélagiques. Ce résultat supporte qu'une débâcle précoce et une plus longue saison de production primaire dans les mers arctiques profiterait davantage au transfert trophique de POC qu'à son export vertical. La conclusion générale de la thèse illustre la complexité de prédire la nature et la magnitude des flux verticaux de POC dans un océan Arctique affecté par de multiples changements environnementaux. Le maintien à long terme d'observatoires marins (ex. lignes de mouillage) est donc essentiel à une meilleure synthèse des liens qui unissent le climat et le cycle du carbone organique dans les hautes latitudes nordiques.

Arctic Cod, Boreogadus saida (Lepechin 1774) occur throughout the circumpolar north at all levels of the water column depending on their life history stage, the time of day, the season, and their activity. Arctic Cod are the most abundant fish species in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (CBS) ecosystem, and are an important link in the flow of energy within the food web. This study examined differences in energy acquisition and usage in Arctic Cod among three depth zones in the CBS (from 15-800m) by examining stomach contents and physiological indicators, taking into account sex, age and body size. Nonparametric comparison analyses found no differences with depth, but support for an ontogenetic shift in diet regarding prey size, a difference in energy content of an average diet between size classes 1 (30-60mm) and 2-4 (2: 60-90mm; 3: 90-120mm; 4: >120mm), and a slight positive relationship between physiological indicators and body size. / October 2016

Canadas Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie Delta Basin possesses significant energy resource potential. Decisions about energy development, however, are largely project-based and do not always provide an opportunity for more efficient and more effective regional and strategic approaches to development impact assessment and management. As such, there are constant messages about the need for a more regional and strategic form of environmental assessment, practiced above the project level and focused on broader planning-based assessment as a means to sustainability assurance. The problem, however, is that there is no formal system of regional or strategic assessment (R-SEA) in northern Canada, and considerations as to what R-SEA is and what it should deliver are far from consolidated. The role of R-SEA must be better understood and a means found to make it a meaningful component and accepted and worthwhile part of planning, regulation and development decision-making. The purpose of this thesis is to identify stakeholder understandings and expectations about R-SEA, and its potential roles and opportunities in Arctic energy planning and assessment. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews with knowledgeable stakeholders in Arctic oil and gas initiatives, including energy regulators, industry, and energy interest groups, as well as Inuvialuit governments and community boards. Four key themes are identified and discussed: the efficacy of the current approach to environmental assessment for offshore energy development; knowledge of R-SEA; RSEA benefits and risks; and opportunities and challenges to advancing R-SEA in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR). Only consultation and engagement was seen by most participants as working well within the current EA system in the study area. Many challenges were raised, however, which would indicate a need for a new or revised approach to EA in the study area. There was agreement on the need for a more regional and strategic approach to EA in the ISR, but there was no consensus amongst participants as to the nature and scope of R-SEA and what it is intended to deliver. Though there continues to be much confusion regarding the terminology used, it appears that participants are identifying the same deliverables and advantages, suggesting that they are looking for similar benefits. Challenges to moving such a process forward include leadership, coordination of interests, financial resources, legislated versus voluntary approaches, and human capacity in the ISR region. Future research is needed to address the perceived risks and challenges raised by participants for R SEA to be a worthwhile and effective process.

Canadas Beaufort Sea-Mackenzie Delta Basin possesses significant energy resource potential. Decisions about energy development, however, are largely project-based and do not always provide an opportunity for more efficient and more effective regional and strategic approaches to development impact assessment and management. As such, there are constant messages about the need for a more regional and strategic form of environmental assessment, practiced above the project level and focused on broader planning-based assessment as a means to sustainability assurance. The problem, however, is that there is no formal system of regional or strategic assessment (R-SEA) in northern Canada, and considerations as to what R-SEA is and what it should deliver are far from consolidated. The role of R-SEA must be better understood and a means found to make it a meaningful component and accepted and worthwhile part of planning, regulation and development decision-making. The purpose of this thesis is to identify stakeholder understandings and expectations about R-SEA, and its potential roles and opportunities in Arctic energy planning and assessment. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews with knowledgeable stakeholders in Arctic oil and gas initiatives, including energy regulators, industry, and energy interest groups, as well as Inuvialuit governments and community boards. Four key themes are identified and discussed: the efficacy of the current approach to environmental assessment for offshore energy development; knowledge of R-SEA; RSEA benefits and risks; and opportunities and challenges to advancing R-SEA in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region (ISR). Only consultation and engagement was seen by most participants as working well within the current EA system in the study area. Many challenges were raised, however, which would indicate a need for a new or revised approach to EA in the study area. There was agreement on the need for a more regional and strategic approach to EA in the ISR, but there was no consensus amongst participants as to the nature and scope of R-SEA and what it is intended to deliver. Though there continues to be much confusion regarding the terminology used, it appears that participants are identifying the same deliverables and advantages, suggesting that they are looking for similar benefits. Challenges to moving such a process forward include leadership, coordination of interests, financial resources, legislated versus voluntary approaches, and human capacity in the ISR region. Future research is needed to address the perceived risks and challenges raised by participants for R SEA to be a worthwhile and effective process.

Of the maritime boundaries yet to be delimited between Canada and the United States, the Beaufort Sea might be the more pressing one, considering its strategic location in a rapidly developing Arctic region and its vast economic potential. In accordance with the Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS), maritime boundaries are to be delimited by agreement on the basis of international law as referred to in Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in order to reach an equitable solution. When an agreement cannot be reached, parties can resort to third-party arbitration. While jurisprudence has determined that international law does not mandate a particular method of delimitation, it requires the consideration of equitable principles, also called special circumstances or factors. The notion of equity is therefore the foundation of boundary determination. But, what is equity and how is it applied? This thesis examines the various forms of equity, their origins in legal philosophy and domestic law and how they have been incorporated in international law. The main focus, however, is to analyse the differences between how international tribunals or courts have interpreted and applied equity in boundary determination and how States have applied it in negotiated agreements. While tribunals have tended to consider equitable principles as equivalent to geographical proportionality, States have considered those principles more in keeping with the notion of distributive justice and, more and more, are taking a globalised approach to boundary determination. On the basis of this analysis, this thesis evaluates the potential outcome of a third-party arbitration of the Beaufort Sea boundary dispute between Canada and the United States as well as the options for settlement negotiations between the Parties. In the Beaufort Sea area where hydrocarbon development is intrinsically linked not only to the development of the local population but also to the entire Arctic region, be it on issues related to the environment, navigation or security, the thesis concludes that a third-party adjudication would not serve the interests of the States. As delimiting boundaries nowadays is only one aspect of the management of oceans related issues, interests are best served when delimitation is understood as part of this global approach.

Thèse--Lettres--Strasbourg II, 1986. / Bibliogr. p. 815-851. Index.