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When subjects learn to match a sample stimulus to a non-identical comparison stimulus, the stimuli may become equivalent, or substitutable for each other. Matching-to-sample procedures have generated stimulus equivalence with humans aged 3 years and upwards. Animals, however, have thus far failed tests of symmetry, one of the defining properties of equivalence. This human-animal difference suggests that language may be related to equivalence formation. In developmental studies by Beasty (1987), young children who failed equivalence tests later passed when taught to name the sample comparison pairings during baseline matching trials. Naming, then, appears to be necessary for stimulus equivalence. Experiments in the present thesis further investigated equivalence formation in children and animals. The first two experiments yielded further evidence against equivalence in animals. Experiment 1 found no evidence of equivalence in the arbitrary matching performances of two chimpanzees involved in an ape-language training programme. In Experiment 2, pigeons failed symmetry tests despite receiving extensive symmetry exemplar training. The final series of studies examined naming and equivalence in 30 normal 4-5 year old children. In Experiment 3, children often gave the same name spontaneously to non-identical stimuli before matching them in equivalence tests. Experiments 4(a)-6 systematically investigated common naming and showed it to be an extremely simple but effective way for naming to mediate equivalence. As well as suggesting a functional definition of naming, the results indicated that the subjects' pre-existing stimulus names may selectively interfere with equivalence formation by affecting the common naming relations introduced during the experiment. These results support the view that language is a major determinant of human behaviour (Lowe, 1979; 1983) and they also emphasise the need for a functional analysis of language development.

Generalised imitation has often been cited in the behaviour analytic literature as a paradigm case of a higher-order response class. However, its determinants have not been established, When, as is the case in published experimental studies of children's imitative performances to date, the to-be-matched behaviours are actions on objects, many nonimitative processes can result in apparently emergent matching. Such confounding sources of control are minimised when the target behaviours are arbitrary gestures. The present experiments explored the matching of (i) arbitrary actions on novel objects with minimal affordances in 3 infants (9 - 15 months), and (ii) gestures alone in 13 infants (15 - 25 months), and in 20 young children (24 - 42 months). In Experiment 1, the infants' performance of the target actions was measured firstly in response to each of four novel objects (Baseline) and next to the target action (Modelling) on each of these objects. In Experiments 2 and 3, participants' unreinforced responses to target behaviours, and their intermittently-reinforced responses to four behaviours that featured in their trained baseline matching relations, were measured. No evidence of higber-order matching was found; rather, the performances of the infants in Experiments 1 and 2, and of the young children in Experiment 3, could be explained in terms of generalisation of extra-experimentally trained matching repertoires. Infants' bigher-order matching abilities were directly tested in Experiments 4 and 5- Following training of four baseline matching relations, and identification of four target behaviours that the infants failed to match, they were trained to produce the target behaviours in the absence of the corresponding modelled behaviour. Infants' unreinforced responses to the modelled target behaviours, interspersed with modelling of the intermittently reinforced baseline behaviours, were then re-tested. The data showed no evidence of higher-order matching and suggest that infants' higher-order matching abilities, not previously directly tested, have been overestimated in the behaviour analytic literature.

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Five experiments were conducted to investigate psychological determinants of food preference in five to seven year-old children. The research was informed by: (i) the general literature on human food preference, and (ii) behaviour analytic theory and research, particularly that on rule-governance. Experiment 1, using a between groups design, examined the impact of in vivo peer behaviour on novel food consumption. Children exposed to "positive" peers avidly consuming a target food tended to prefer that food. Conversely, children who observed "negative" peers, rejecting the food, consumed little: it was also shown that these negative effects could be largely overridden by subsequent exposure to positive peers. Experiments 2 to 5 utilised multiple baseline designs to evaluate the effectiveness of a series of multi-component interventions designed to promote consumption of previously refused fruits and vegetables. To maximise ecological validity and long-term maintenance of behaviour change these experiments were conducted in subjects' homes in the context of the evening meal. During Experiment 2 an intervention incorporating video modelling, contingent rewards, and instructions effectively promoted consumption of three named foods. However, little generalisation to the consumption of other foods was evident. In Experiment 3 a similar intervention targeted broader food categories (vegetables and fruit) and this was effective in promoting consumption of up to 12 foods. Maintenance interventions utilising token rewards were effective in promoting long term consumption. During Experiment 4, written instructions and contingent rewards, without video modelling, were relatively effective in promoting fruit, but not vegetable consumption. During Experiment 5, instructions and video modelling, without contingent rewards had a negligible effect on the consumption of either food category. The results demonstrated that, contrary to the widely held belief within the human food preference literature, interventions utilising contingent rewards can be very effective in modifying food preferences. In discussing the results consideration was given to: (i) the role of rulegovernance in ensuring effective reward use; (ii) maintenance and generalisation of behaviour change; and (iii) the outcome measure most appropriate for food preference research.

A lot about the learning process still remains unknown. The experiments described in this thesis investigated variables that affect instructional efficiency by employing specifically programmed computers to manage and control instructional variables within each experiment for 6- to 7-year old children. A Measurement Procedures Study was undertaken to ascertain when a response should be classified as "acquired." It was decided to classify a response as acquired if it could be performed correctly (without prompting) seven days after instruction. A review of the relationship between accuracy level during instruction and the rate of acquisition found that higher accuracy levels during instruction tend to be associated with higher rates of acquisition provided that non-copying prompting procedures are employed. The first experiment investigated the relationship between accuracy level during instruction and rate of acquisition by presenting a non-copying antecedent prompt (model of the correct spelling word) depending on a preselected target accuracy level. As an error-contingent prompt (model of the correct spelling word) was also provided it could not be ascertained whether transfer of stimulus control occurred as a result of the antecedent prompt, or the error-contingent prompt, or both. The second experiment was a repeat of the first experiment with the error-contingent prompt removed. It was found that it was possible to manage, although not completely control, the accuracy level during instruction by presenting a simultaneous non-copying prompt and that higher accuracy levels during instruction were associated with higher rates of acquisition. A review that examined the error-correction research found that a variety of correction procedures were effective. However, none of the 36 experiments which were reviewed controlled the number of response opportunities. Experiment 3 compared the effects on rate of acquisition of presenting an antecedent model or an error-contingent model. The results of Experiment 3 showed that when the number of learning opportunities was controlled there was little difference in effectiveness or efficiency between an antecedent model and an error-contingent model. Experiment 4 compared the effects of presenting an error-contingent model against an error-contingent model and a secondary response opportunity. It was found that an error-contingent model was at least as effective, although it was overall less efficient when response opportunities were controlled. A supplementary analysis was undertaken to review and compare the results obtained across the four experiments. Across experiments each newly acquired spelling response required about five practice responses, on average. It appears this was a critical variable for acquisition. Additionally, each acquired response was acquired over a two-day period. Although rates of acquisition differed between high-achieving children and low-achieving children, there was little difference in the number of practice responses required for acquisition between these two groups. It was observed that most of the 6- to 7-year old participants found error feedback aversive and this appeared to result in reduced attention to models of the correct spelling when these occurred following errors. The results from this series of investigations suggest that an opportunity for the transfer of stimulus control from the prompt (model of the correct spelling) to the practice stimulus (the spoken word) is more critical for acquisition than where the prompt occurs within the trial (that is, the antecedent or consequent position). It was suggested that future research could investigate (a) the variables which are necessary for the transfer of stimulus control, (b) the generality of the observation that children require five practice responses in order to acquire discrete academic responses, and (c) the effects on rates of acquisition and instructional efficiency of varying the distribution in time of practice responses for children who are learning various types of academic skills.

Emotions are fundamental to human lives and decision-making. Understanding and expression of emotional feeling between people forms an intricate web. This complex interactional phenomena, is a hot topic for research, as new techniques such as brain imaging give us insights about how emotions are tied to human functions. Communication of emotions is mixed with communication of other types of information (such as factual details) and emotions can be consciously or unconsciously displayed. Affective computer systems, using sensors for emotion recognition and able to make emotive responses are under development. The increased potential for emotional interaction with products and services, in many domains, is generating much interest. Emotionally enhanced systems have potential to improve human computer interaction and so to improve how systems are used and what they can deliver. They may also have adverse implications such as creating systems capable of emotional manipulation of users. Affective systems are in their infancy and lack human complexity and capability. This makes it difficult to assess whether human interaction with such systems will actually prove beneficial or desirable to users. By using experimental design, a Wizard of Oz methodology and a game that appeared to respond to the user's emotional signals with human-like capability, I tested user experience and reactions to a system that appeared affective. To assess users' behaviour, I developed a novel affective behaviour coding system called 'affectemes'. I found significant gains in user satisfaction and performance when using an affective system. Those believing the system responded to emotional signals blinked more frequently. If the machine failed to respond to their emotional signals, they increased their efforts to convey emotion, which might be an attempt to 'repair' the interaction. This work highlights how very complex and difficult it is to design and evaluate affective systems. I identify many issues for future work, including the unconscious nature of emotions and how they are recognised and displayed with affective systems; issues about the power of emotionally interactive systems and their evaluation; and critical ethical issues. These are important considerations for future design of systems that use emotion recognition in computing.

The idea which has initiated this research came firstly from being a mother of an autistic child and secondly, being an experienced Applied Behaviour Analysis/Applied Verbal Behaviour “ABA/AVB” therapist working with children with autism and related disorders. It has been the researcher ambition for some time to study the effects of implementing an ABA/AVB programme on children with autism, and to report on their performance. The previous and current research has shown the importance of an early intervention in teaching children with autism. However, finding an appropriate intervention for an individual with autism is still debated among parents and professionals. Previous research has highlighted the importance of an ABA programme using the Lovaas model programme in teaching children with autism. No wider research on the AVB model has been conducted. This has led the researcher to investigate this issue further. This research has taken place at “The Autistic Centre” in Beirut. This research is the author’s attempt to study the effects and the impacts of implementing an AVB programme on children with autism. Children’s performance on specific skills will be assessed, evaluated and reported by four parties: 1. The researcher. 2. The independent psychologists. 3. The teachers. 4. The parents. The research used a combination of quantitative and some qualitative methods. The AVB Intervention used for this study was based on multiple baseline design across behaviour, participants and settings. The different use of methods for this research has contributed to the methodology, by using different methods to collect data and involving many parties who can evaluate the children’s performance and report their progress from their own perspectives. The present study demonstrated the efficiency of the AVB programme with ten children with autism. Its effects have been clear on the emergence of speech, collateral gains in social communicative behaviours and decrease of problems behaviours and the decrease of parental level stress. This research also proposed several key suggestions based on the literature review and the research undertaken. It has also contributed to knowledge of the current research regarding the implementation of an AVB Programme as an educational provision and its effects on the child and the parents.

The aim of the thesis is to find an appropriate analytic tool by which the infants good market can be first described and then surveyed. The research is focused on the questions -- what are the places with the major consumers frequency, whether the discounts are popular with the consumers or not, how frequently is the internet used in the connection with searching for and buying infants goods, what has the strongest influence on consumers decision-making processes. The results of the research confirm that there is almost no influence on consumers decision-making process caused by demografical characteristics but by consumers individual preferences.