A radiomarcação de biomoléculas específicas com o tecnécio-99m 99mTc utilizando agentes quelantes bifuncionais é um campo em crescimento na Medicina Nuclear. Em especial, a classe de peptídeos regulatórios, como a Neurotensina, participa de processos fisiológicos essenciais no organismo, como o crescimento tumoral. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi o estudo comparativo da influência dos agentes quelantes bifuncionais 6-hidrazinonicotinamida (HYNIC) e S-acetil-mercaptoacetiltriglicina (MAG3), no comportamento in vitro e in vivo do análogo duplamente estabilizado da Neurotensina(8-13) radiomarcado com 99mTc, em células tumorais de mama da linhagem MDA-MB-231. Um elevado rendimento radioquímico (> 97%) e estabilidade frente aos agentes transquelantes foi observado para ambos análogos radiomarcados. Foram também obtidos comportamentos similares in vitro, no que diz respeito à porcentagem de ligação às proteinas plasmáticas (aproximadamente 22%), estabilidade metabólica, ligação aos receptores celulares (intervalo nM) e taxas de internalização/externalização para ambos radiocomplexos. A maior lipofilicidade encontrada para o análogo radiomarcado via MAG3 refletiu nas principais diferenças nos estudos de biodistribuição. A degradação do análogo radiomarcado via HYNIC nos estudos de estabilidade metabólica in vivo aos 90 min levou a menor retenção tumoral (0,44±0,02% DI/g), e consequentemente, às menores razões tumor/órgãos não-alvos (< 5%). Embora a superioridade do traçador marcado via MAG3 tenha sido comprovada no presente estudo, um redesenho estrutural objetivando contornar a alta captação no trato gastrointestinal deve ser realizada a fim de que sua potencial aplicabilidade não seja comprometida. / The radiolabeling of receptor specific biomolecules with 99mTc using bifunctional chelator agents represents a growing field in Nuclear Medicine, specially, regarding regulatory peptides, such as Neurotensin, which are important in several essential physiological functions, particularly in tumor growth. The aim of the study was the comparative radiolabeling evaluation of the double-stabilized NT(8-13) analog with 99mTc, via the bifunctional chelating agents 6- hydrazinonicotinamide (HYNIC) and S-acetyl-mercaptoacetyltriglycine (MAG3) in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. High radiochemical yields (> 97%) and stability toward transchelant agents was observed for both radiolabeled analogs. Also, comparable in vitro behaviour regarding the percentage of plasma protein binding (nearby 22%), metabolic stability, receptor binding affinity (nM range), and internalization/externalization rates were obtained. The greater lipophilicity found for the analog radiolabeled via MAG3, reflected in the major differences in biodistribution studies. The in vivo metabolic stability studies suggested that the degradation observed in the later time point (90 min) for the conjugate radiolabeled via HYNIC, leads not only to lower tumor uptake accumulation (0,44±0,02% ID/g), but also to lower tumor-to-non-tumor ratios (< 5%). Although the superiority of the tracer radiolabeled via MAG3 had been confirmed in the present study, a strucutural re-design aiming the reduction of the high gastrointestinal uptake must be done in order to guarantee the potential applicability of MAG3-radiocomplex.

Superfícies híbridas nanoestruturadas Pt/Au com os depósitos de Au de 20, 50 e 100 nm de espessura foram obtidas pelo processo fotolitográfico. O molde utilizado foi um arranjo de microeletrodos interdigitados. As superfícies híbridas nanoestruturadas Pt/Au contendo 20, 50 e 100 nm de Au desenvolvidas foram caracterizadas por microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microscopia de força atômica, voltametria cíclica e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. Então, aplicadas como sensores para detecção eletroquímica dos biomarcadores ácido ascórbico, ácido úrico, dopamina, hidroquinona e nitrito. Numa segunda etapa, as nanoestruturas de ouro foram recobertas com monocamada auto-organizada (self-assembled monolayers - SAM) de alcanotiol (cistamina, ácido mercaptoacético e 11-mercaptoundecanóico) visando a preparação da superfície para imobilização de biomoléculas, incluindo enzimas e anticorpos. A superfície híbrida bimetálica bifuncional nanoestruturada Pt/Au-SAM foi obtida realizando-se varreduras cíclicas em solução contendo 0,1 mol L-1 de H2SO4 em intervalos de varreduras de potenciais específicos para cada SAM, através deste procedimento foi possível remover a SAM somente da superfície da platina e mantendo sobre as nanoestruturas de ouro. A enzima glicose oxidase (Aspergillus niger) foi imobilizada por ligação covalente com auxílio de EDC/NHS e o ferroceno foi utilizado como mediador de elétrons. A caracterização eletroquímica foi feita em solução aquosa contendo 0,1 mol L-1 de ácido sulfúrico supra puro e em solução contendo 5,0 mmol da sonda redox ferrocianeto e ferricianeto de potássio utilizando-se a técnica de voltametria cíclica e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. O peróxido de hidrogênio formado como produto da reação da catálise enzimática foi determinado sobre a superfície da platina em solução contendo 0,1 mol L-1 de PBS. A constante cinética aparente de Michaelis-Menten (KMapp) e a constante catalítica kcat foram calculadas e comparadas com outros transdutores relatados na literatura. A terceira aplicação foi a utilização desta superfície híbrida como um imunossensor eletroquímico para detecção de cortisol salivar. O anticorpo Anti-cortisol foi imobilizado com auxílio de EDC/NHS a SAM. Esse dispositivo foi imerso em soluções contendo 3.1 x 10-15 - 1.5 x 10-3 mol L-1 de cortisol. A relação sinal-concentração foi obtida através da técnica de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica observando-se a variação de transferência de carga com relação à variação de concentração de cortisol adsorvido ao dispositivo Pt/Au/SAM/Anticorpo-cortisol. Os limites de detcção obtidos foram 0,08, 207, 0,3, 11,1, 11,3, 0,2 × 10-6 e 9,3 × 10-13mol L-1 para glicose, ácido ascórbico, dopamina, hidroquinona, nitrito e ácido úrico, respectivamente. / Nanostructured hybrid surfaces Pt/Au containing 20, 50 and 100 nm of Au was obtained by the photolithographic process. The template used was an interdigitated microelectrodes array. The nanostructured hybrid surfaces Pt/Au containing 20, 50 and 100 nm of Au was characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Then, applied as sensors for electrochemical detection of biomarkers ascorbic acid, uric acid, dopamine, hydroquinone and nitrite. In a second step, the gold nanostructures were coated with self-assembled monolayer (self-assembled monolayers - SAM) of alkanethiol (cystamine, mercaptoacetic acid and 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid) aiming at preparing the surface for biomolecule immobilization, including enzymes and antibodies. The bifunctional nanostructured hybrid surface Pt/Au-SAM was obtained by performing cyclic scans solution containing 0.1 mol L-1 H2SO4 at specific potential scans intervals for each SAM through this procedure was only possible to remove the SAM the platinum surface and holding on the gold nanostructures. The enzyme glucose oxidase (Aspergillus niger) was immobilized with EDC/NHS and ferrocene was used as an electron mediator. The electrochemical characterization was performed in an aqueous solution containing 0.1 mol L-1 of sulfuric acid and in a solution containing 5.0 mmol of potassium ferrocyanide and ferricyanide redox probe using cyclic voltammetry technique and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The hydrogen peroxide formed as a product of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction was measured on the surface of platinum solution containing 0.1 mol L-1 PBS. The apparent Michaelis-Menten kinetic constant (KMapp) and the catalytic constant kcat were calculated and compared with other transducers reported in the literature. The third application was the use of this hybrid surface and an electrochemical immunosensor for detecting salivary cortisol. Anti-cortisol antibody was immobilized at the SAM (mercaptocaetic acid) with EDC/NHS. This device was dipped in solutions containing 3.1 x 10-15 - 1.5 x 10-3 mol L-1 of cortisol. The signal-concentration relationship was obtained by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique of observing the variation in load transfer with respect to variation of cortisol concentration device adsorbed to Pt/Au/SAM/antibody-cortisol. The detection limit obtained were 0.08, 207, 0.3, 11.1, 11.3, 0.2 × 10-6 mol L-1 for glucose, ascorbic acid, dopamine, hydroquinone, nitrite, uric acid, respectively. Keywords: Nanostructured hybrid surface, sensors, biosensors, imunosensors, biomarkers, uric acid, ascorbic acid, dopamine, hydroquinone, glucose, cortisol.

Atualmente, ainda é incerto se a hidrólise de L-arginil-&beta;-naftilamida (ArgNA) e do leucotrieno (LT) A4 pela LT-A4-hidrolase (LT-A4-H) (EC 3.3.2.6) e pela aminopeptidase básica (APB) (EC 3.4.11.6) tem influência no desenvolvimento da artrite induzida por colágeno (CIA). O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a inter-relação entre LT-A4-H, APB e LT-B4 em ratos submetidos à CIA. Cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), ensaio imunoenzimático (EIA), espectrofluorimetria e reação quantitativa em tempo real em cadeia da polimerase (qPCR) foram usados como metodologias. A existência dos genes para as proteínas EC 3.3.2.6 e EC 3.4.11.6 foi confirmada no tecido sinovial (TS) de ratos controles sadios. A hidrólise de ArgNA aumentou na fração solúvel (FS) dos animais submetidos à CIA que desenvolveram a doença (artríticos-CIA) em comparação com aqueles que não desenvolveram a doença (resistentes-CIA) e com os controles sadios. No líquido sinovial (SY) e no plasma sanguíneo houve menor hidrólise de ArgNA em resistentes em comparação aos artríticos e controles. Nas células mononucleares do sangue periférico (PBMCs), os níveis de hidrólise de ArgNA aumentaram na FS de controles e na fração de membrana (FM) dos resistentes em comparação aos artríticos. Em comparação com controles sadios, a hidrólise de LT-A4 aumentou no SY e na FS de PBMCs de artríticos e resistentes. A hidrólise de LT-A4 também aumentou na FM do TS de resistentes e diminuiu na FM de PBMCs em artríticos e resistentes. Em todos estes compartimentos a hidrólise de ArgNA permaneceu inalterada ou relacionou-se inversamente com a hidrólise de LT-A4, comparativamente aos controles sadios. A hidrólise de ArgNA diferiu entre os artríticos e resistentes em FM-TS, FS-TS, FM-PBMCs, SY e no plasma sanguíneo. Uma relação no mesmo sentido foi encontrada entre alterações na hidrólise de LT-A4 e nos níveis de LT-B4 apenas em SY e FM-PBMCs dos artríticos e resistentes e em FM-TS dos resistentes, comparativamente aos controles sadios. Em conclusão, a atividade APB é um novo marcador que distingue ratos artríticos e resistentes no modelo CIA. Os níveis de LT-B4 em ratos não são controlados somente pela LT-A4-H. Alterações na atividade LT-A4-H e nos níveis de LT-B4 são indistinguíveis entre artríticos e resistentes, mas tais alterações marcadamente distinguem essas duas condições da condição saudável. LT-A4-H e APB estão relacionadas de uma forma compartimento-dependente, atuando como enzimas independentes, com modulação diferencial das suas especificidades, eficiências e/ou afinidades catalíticas sobre os substratos epóxi e peptídico, ou como enzimas bifuncionais, cujas atividades são inversamente relacionadas devido à inibição concorrente de uma destas atividades / Whether L-arginyl-&beta;-naphthylamide (ArgNA) and leukotriene (LT)-A4 hydrolyses by LT-A4 hydrolase (LT-A4-H) (EC 3.3.2.6) and basic aminopeptidase (APB) (EC 3.4.11.6) influence the development of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) is presently uncertain. The objective of this study was to investigate the interrelationship among LT-A4-H, APB and LT-B4 in CIA rats. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), enzyme immunoassay (EIA), spectrofluorometry and quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were used as methodologies. The existence of genes for EC 3.3.2.6 and EC 3.4.11.6 proteins were confirmed in the synovial tissue (TS) of healthy control rats. ArgNA hydrolysis was higher in soluble fraction (FS) in rats submitted to CIA that developed the disease (CIA-arthritic) than in those that did not develop the disease (CIA-resistant) or healthy control. Synovial fluid (SY) and blood plasma had lower ArgNA hydrolysis in CIA-resistant than in CIA-arthritic or control. In the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) the levels of ArgNA hydrolysis increased in FS of control and in membrane-bound fraction (FM) of CIA-resistant in comparison with CIA-arthritic. Compared with healthy control, LT-A4 hydrolysis increased in SY and in FS from PBMCs of CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant. LT-A4 hydrolysis also increased in FM from TS of CIA-resistant and decreased in PBMCs-FM of CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant. In all these locations hydrolysis of ArgNA remained unchanged or it was inversely related with LT-A4 hydrolysis, comparatively to healthy control. ArgNA hydrolysis differed between CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant in TS-FM, TS-FS, PBMCs-FM, SY and blood plasma. A same-sense relationship was found between changes on LT-A4 hydrolysis and LT-B4 levels only in SY and PBMCs-FM of CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant and in TS-FM of CIA-resistant, comparatively to healthy control. In conclusion, the APB activity is a novel distinctive marker of CIA-arthritic and CIA-resistant statuses. The levels of LT-B4 in rats are not controlled only by LT-A4-H. Changes on LT-A4-H activity and LT-B4 levels are indistinguishable between CIA-resistant and CIA-arthritic, but such variations markedly distinguish these two statuses from healthy status. LT-A4-H and APB are related in a compartment-dependent manner acting as independent enzymes with differential modulation of their specificity, efficiency and/or catalytic affinity on the aminoacyl and epoxy substrates, or as bifunctional enzymes which activities are inversely related due to the concurrent inhibition of one of these

Superfícies híbridas nanoestruturadas Pt/Au com os depósitos de Au de 20, 50 e 100 nm de espessura foram obtidas pelo processo fotolitográfico. O molde utilizado foi um arranjo de microeletrodos interdigitados. As superfícies híbridas nanoestruturadas Pt/Au contendo 20, 50 e 100 nm de Au desenvolvidas foram caracterizadas por microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microscopia de força atômica, voltametria cíclica e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. Então, aplicadas como sensores para detecção eletroquímica dos biomarcadores ácido ascórbico, ácido úrico, dopamina, hidroquinona e nitrito. Numa segunda etapa, as nanoestruturas de ouro foram recobertas com monocamada auto-organizada (self-assembled monolayers - SAM) de alcanotiol (cistamina, ácido mercaptoacético e 11-mercaptoundecanóico) visando a preparação da superfície para imobilização de biomoléculas, incluindo enzimas e anticorpos. A superfície híbrida bimetálica bifuncional nanoestruturada Pt/Au-SAM foi obtida realizando-se varreduras cíclicas em solução contendo 0,1 mol L-1 de H2SO4 em intervalos de varreduras de potenciais específicos para cada SAM, através deste procedimento foi possível remover a SAM somente da superfície da platina e mantendo sobre as nanoestruturas de ouro. A enzima glicose oxidase (Aspergillus niger) foi imobilizada por ligação covalente com auxílio de EDC/NHS e o ferroceno foi utilizado como mediador de elétrons. A caracterização eletroquímica foi feita em solução aquosa contendo 0,1 mol L-1 de ácido sulfúrico supra puro e em solução contendo 5,0 mmol da sonda redox ferrocianeto e ferricianeto de potássio utilizando-se a técnica de voltametria cíclica e espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. O peróxido de hidrogênio formado como produto da reação da catálise enzimática foi determinado sobre a superfície da platina em solução contendo 0,1 mol L-1 de PBS. A constante cinética aparente de Michaelis-Menten (KMapp) e a constante catalítica kcat foram calculadas e comparadas com outros transdutores relatados na literatura. A terceira aplicação foi a utilização desta superfície híbrida como um imunossensor eletroquímico para detecção de cortisol salivar. O anticorpo Anti-cortisol foi imobilizado com auxílio de EDC/NHS a SAM. Esse dispositivo foi imerso em soluções contendo 3.1 x 10-15 - 1.5 x 10-3 mol L-1 de cortisol. A relação sinal-concentração foi obtida através da técnica de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica observando-se a variação de transferência de carga com relação à variação de concentração de cortisol adsorvido ao dispositivo Pt/Au/SAM/Anticorpo-cortisol. Os limites de detcção obtidos foram 0,08, 207, 0,3, 11,1, 11,3, 0,2 × 10-6 e 9,3 × 10-13mol L-1 para glicose, ácido ascórbico, dopamina, hidroquinona, nitrito e ácido úrico, respectivamente. / Nanostructured hybrid surfaces Pt/Au containing 20, 50 and 100 nm of Au was obtained by the photolithographic process. The template used was an interdigitated microelectrodes array. The nanostructured hybrid surfaces Pt/Au containing 20, 50 and 100 nm of Au was characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Then, applied as sensors for electrochemical detection of biomarkers ascorbic acid, uric acid, dopamine, hydroquinone and nitrite. In a second step, the gold nanostructures were coated with self-assembled monolayer (self-assembled monolayers - SAM) of alkanethiol (cystamine, mercaptoacetic acid and 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid) aiming at preparing the surface for biomolecule immobilization, including enzymes and antibodies. The bifunctional nanostructured hybrid surface Pt/Au-SAM was obtained by performing cyclic scans solution containing 0.1 mol L-1 H2SO4 at specific potential scans intervals for each SAM through this procedure was only possible to remove the SAM the platinum surface and holding on the gold nanostructures. The enzyme glucose oxidase (Aspergillus niger) was immobilized with EDC/NHS and ferrocene was used as an electron mediator. The electrochemical characterization was performed in an aqueous solution containing 0.1 mol L-1 of sulfuric acid and in a solution containing 5.0 mmol of potassium ferrocyanide and ferricyanide redox probe using cyclic voltammetry technique and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The hydrogen peroxide formed as a product of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction was measured on the surface of platinum solution containing 0.1 mol L-1 PBS. The apparent Michaelis-Menten kinetic constant (KMapp) and the catalytic constant kcat were calculated and compared with other transducers reported in the literature. The third application was the use of this hybrid surface and an electrochemical immunosensor for detecting salivary cortisol. Anti-cortisol antibody was immobilized at the SAM (mercaptocaetic acid) with EDC/NHS. This device was dipped in solutions containing 3.1 x 10-15 - 1.5 x 10-3 mol L-1 of cortisol. The signal-concentration relationship was obtained by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique of observing the variation in load transfer with respect to variation of cortisol concentration device adsorbed to Pt/Au/SAM/antibody-cortisol. The detection limit obtained were 0.08, 207, 0.3, 11.1, 11.3, 0.2 × 10-6 mol L-1 for glucose, ascorbic acid, dopamine, hydroquinone, nitrite, uric acid, respectively. Keywords: Nanostructured hybrid surface, sensors, biosensors, imunosensors, biomarkers, uric acid, ascorbic acid, dopamine, hydroquinone, glucose, cortisol.

A radiomarcação de biomoléculas específicas com o tecnécio-99m 99mTc utilizando agentes quelantes bifuncionais é um campo em crescimento na Medicina Nuclear. Em especial, a classe de peptídeos regulatórios, como a Neurotensina, participa de processos fisiológicos essenciais no organismo, como o crescimento tumoral. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi o estudo comparativo da influência dos agentes quelantes bifuncionais 6-hidrazinonicotinamida (HYNIC) e S-acetil-mercaptoacetiltriglicina (MAG3), no comportamento in vitro e in vivo do análogo duplamente estabilizado da Neurotensina(8-13) radiomarcado com 99mTc, em células tumorais de mama da linhagem MDA-MB-231. Um elevado rendimento radioquímico (> 97%) e estabilidade frente aos agentes transquelantes foi observado para ambos análogos radiomarcados. Foram também obtidos comportamentos similares in vitro, no que diz respeito à porcentagem de ligação às proteinas plasmáticas (aproximadamente 22%), estabilidade metabólica, ligação aos receptores celulares (intervalo nM) e taxas de internalização/externalização para ambos radiocomplexos. A maior lipofilicidade encontrada para o análogo radiomarcado via MAG3 refletiu nas principais diferenças nos estudos de biodistribuição. A degradação do análogo radiomarcado via HYNIC nos estudos de estabilidade metabólica in vivo aos 90 min levou a menor retenção tumoral (0,44±0,02% DI/g), e consequentemente, às menores razões tumor/órgãos não-alvos (< 5%). Embora a superioridade do traçador marcado via MAG3 tenha sido comprovada no presente estudo, um redesenho estrutural objetivando contornar a alta captação no trato gastrointestinal deve ser realizada a fim de que sua potencial aplicabilidade não seja comprometida. / The radiolabeling of receptor specific biomolecules with 99mTc using bifunctional chelator agents represents a growing field in Nuclear Medicine, specially, regarding regulatory peptides, such as Neurotensin, which are important in several essential physiological functions, particularly in tumor growth. The aim of the study was the comparative radiolabeling evaluation of the double-stabilized NT(8-13) analog with 99mTc, via the bifunctional chelating agents 6- hydrazinonicotinamide (HYNIC) and S-acetyl-mercaptoacetyltriglycine (MAG3) in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. High radiochemical yields (> 97%) and stability toward transchelant agents was observed for both radiolabeled analogs. Also, comparable in vitro behaviour regarding the percentage of plasma protein binding (nearby 22%), metabolic stability, receptor binding affinity (nM range), and internalization/externalization rates were obtained. The greater lipophilicity found for the analog radiolabeled via MAG3, reflected in the major differences in biodistribution studies. The in vivo metabolic stability studies suggested that the degradation observed in the later time point (90 min) for the conjugate radiolabeled via HYNIC, leads not only to lower tumor uptake accumulation (0,44±0,02% ID/g), but also to lower tumor-to-non-tumor ratios (< 5%). Although the superiority of the tracer radiolabeled via MAG3 had been confirmed in the present study, a strucutural re-design aiming the reduction of the high gastrointestinal uptake must be done in order to guarantee the potential applicability of MAG3-radiocomplex.

Células a combustível regenerativas unitizadas (URFCs) são dispositivos eletroquímicos capazes de atuar como um eletrolisador de água ou como uma célula a combustível. Contudo, para que o potencial de uma URFC seja plenamente alcançado é essencial o desenvolvimento de componentes ativos e estáveis nos dois modos de operação, em especial em relação ao catalisador a ser utilizado no eletrodo de oxigênio. Em meio ácido, catalisadores obtidos pela combinação de platina e óxido de irídio têm apresentado desempenho satisfatório para as reações de redução (RRO) e evolução de oxigênio (REO), mas a estabilidade desses materiais ainda é relativamente pouco explorada. Neste trabalho, catalisadores bifuncionais foram sintetizados pela deposição de nanopartículas de platina sobre óxido irídio amorfo (Pt/IrOx) e cristalino (Pt/IrO2), e caracterizados físico-quimicamente através de diferentes técnicas, como EDX, XRD, XPS, XAS e XPS. A caracterização eletroquímica e a avaliação da atividade catalítica foi realizada em célula eletroquímica de três eletrodos, no qual é mostrado que, enquanto catalisadores Pt/IrO2 possuem maior atividade para a RRO, materiais Pt/IrOx são mais ativos para a REO. A estabilidade dos catalisadores bifuncionais foi avaliada empregando-se diferentes protocolos de envelhecimento. Uma investigação detalhada dos processos de degradação foi feita através da técnica de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão de localização idêntica (IL-TEM), enquanto que a dissolução eletroquímica dos catalisadores foi monitorada online utilizando-se uma célula eletroquímica de fluxo hifenada a um espectrômetro de massas com plasma indutivamente acoplado (SFCICP-MS). / Unitized regenerative fuel cells (URFCs) are electrochemical devices that can operate as a water electrolyzer or as a fuel cell. However, for the potential of an URFC to be fully achieved, it is essential to develop components that are active and stable in both operation modes, especially in relation to the catalyst to be used in the oxygen electrode. In acidic media, catalysts obtained by the combination of platinum and iridium oxide have shown satisfactory performance for the oxygen reduction (ORR) and evolution (OER) reactions, but the stability of these materials is still relatively little explored. In this work, bifunctional catalysts were synthesized by the deposition of platinum nanoparticles on hydrous (Pt/IrOx) and crystalline (Pt/IrO2) iridium oxide, and physicochemically characterized by different techniques such as EDX, XRD, TEM, XPS and XAS. The electrochemical characterization and the evaluation of the catalytic activity were performed in a three-electrodes electrochemical cell, in which it is shown that, while Pt/IrO2 catalysts have higher activity for the ORR, Pt/IrOx materials are more active for the OER. The stability of the bifunctional catalysts was evaluated using different aging protocols. A detailed investigation of the degradation processes was done using the identical location transmission electron microscopy (IL-TEM) technique, while the electrochemical dissolution of the catalysts was monitored online using a scanning flow cell inductively coupled to a plasma mass spectrometer (SFC-ICP-MS) setup.

The use of enamines continues to be an important tool in organic syntheses as both a catalyst and reactant. The addition of metal catalysts coupled with enamine catalysis has generated many reactions that normally would not occur separately. However, catalysts' incompatibility is an issue that we wish to solve allowing new chemistry to occur without hindrance. The use of enamines has continued to be a well-studied area of organic chemistry, but the field is ripe for different types of enamines to gain the spotlight. Enaminones are enamines with both nucleophilic and electrophilic properties. They allow reactions that are normally not possible with enamines to become obtainable. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction on enamines and the reason they gained so much attention. Then ends with enaminones and what makes them interesting reactants. Chapter 2 described a new synthesis for the tricyclic synthesis of chromanes using a novel bifunctional catalyst system of enamine-metal Lewis acid giving great yields (up to 87 %yield) and excellent stereoselectivity (up to 99 % ee). Chapter 3 covered new reactions for ring-open cyclopropane (up to 94% yield), tetrahydroquinolinones (up to 84% yield) and enantiospecific tetrahydroquinolinones (up to 84% yield and 97% ee) using α-enaminone and donor-acceptor cyclopropanes. Finally, Chapter 4 focused a new method for synthesizing benzobicyclo[3.2.1]octanes with an added sterically bulky quaternary center and imine functionalization giving yields between 36-73% yield using α-enaminone with alkylidene malonates.

In dieser Arbeit wird die Entwicklung eines bifunktionellen Biosensors nach dem Vorbild eines Baukastensystems beschrieben. Das Ziel wird durch die Kombination verschiedenster molekularer Erkennungselemente erreicht. Solche molekularen Erkennungselemente im verwendeten System sind: • Propidium und die periphere anionische Bindungsstelle der Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) • Organophosphate und das aktive Zentrum der AChE • ein an die AChE gekoppeltes Hapten und das Epitop eines Antikörpers • ein an die AChE gekoppeltes Hapten, das als Ligand ein weiteres Enzym bindet Neben dem molekularen Erkennungselement wird ein Biosensor ebenso durch die Art des Transducers charakterisiert. Hier werden Quarzplättchen mit Goldelektroden zur Signalumwandlung eingesetzt. Die Verwendung solcher Sensoren mit einem EQCM-Gerät (electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance) ermöglicht es zwei Messsignale gleichzeitig aufzunehmen: die piezoelektrische Bestimmung einer Massebeladung und die amperometrische Detektion von Enzymaktivität auf der Sensoroberfläche. Für die Analytik stehen somit zwei verschiedene Assay-Varianten zur Verfügung: die Bestimmung der Inhibition der ACHE-Aktivität und ein Bindungstest über das Hapten. Die Basis beider Tests ist die Modifizierung der piezoelektrischen Kristalle mit Propidium – einem reversiblen Inhibitor der Acetylcholinesterase. Dies ermöglicht die Beladung des Sensors mit AChE über die Wechselwirkung mit der peripheren anionischen Bindungsstelle des Enzyms. Die Aktivität der so immobilisierten AChE und die Inhibition durch Organophosphate (Pestizide) werden amperometrisch bestimmt. Durch die chemische Kopplung eines Hapten an die Cholinesterase wird ein weiteres Erkennungselement eingeführt. Das eröffnet die Möglichkeit, an die auf dem Propidium-modifizierten Sensor immobilisierte, haptenisierte Cholinesterase einen Antikörper zu binden. Als Voraussetzung für elektrochemische Bestimmung der AChE-Aktivität wurde zunächst die Optimierung der amperometrischen Messmethode vorgenommen. Die Oxidatationspotentiale für die Detektion von Thiocholin wurden im Bereich von 150 mV bis 300 mV variiert. Dabei wurde für die nachfolgenden Untersuchungen eine Arbeitspotential von 200 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl) festgelegt, da hier das beste Verhältnis von gemessenem Oxidationsstrom und Langzeitstabilität der Propidium-modifizierten Sensoren erzielt wurde. Dieses Potential war deutlich geringer als die bisher publizierten Mediator-freien AChE-Biosensoren. Es wurde ein Vergleich verschiedener Organophosphate über ihre Inhibitionskonstanten durchgeführt, um diejenigen herauszufinden, die möglichst schnell mit dem aktiven Zentrum der Acetylcholinesterase reagieren. Das verwendete Messsystem beruht nicht auf der Vorinkubation der AChE und damit einer Einstellung des Inhibitionsgleichgewichts. Stattdessen wurde die Inhibition der AChE direkt im Fließsystem verfolgt. Daher war eine schnelle Inhibitionskinetik für einen empfindlichen Organophosphat-Nachweis erforderlich. Da einige Inhibitoren nur als Phosphothionat vorlagen, wurde die Überführung dieser Substanzen in die entsprechenden Oxo-Formen mittels N-Bromsuccinimid untersucht. Die NBS-Aktivierung wurde erfolgreich durchgeführt, die erwartete Inhibitionsstärke konnte jedoch aufgrund hydrolytischer Vorgänge nicht erreicht werden. Untersuchungen mit Diisopropylfluorophosphat (DFP) und Chlorpyriphos-oxon (CPO) konnten die Voruntersuchungen über die Inhibitionskinetik in Bezug auf die erreichten Nachweisgrenzen von 2E-06 M für DFP und 5E-08 M für CPO bestätigen. Für die chemische Modifizierung der Acetylcholinesterase wurde zunächst 2,4-Dichlorphenoxyessigsäure (2,4-D) als Hapten ausgewählt. 2,4-D wird als Herbizid eingesetzt und in der EU über die Gewässerschutzrichtlinie reguliert. 2,4-D konnte in unterschiedlichen molaren Verhältnissen von 2,6 : 1 bis 260 : 1 (2,4-D : AChE) nach Aktivierung mit einem Norbornendicarboximido-Derivat an die AChE gekoppelt werden. Dabei konnte die spezifische Aktivität der Acetylcholinesterase erhalten und die Bindung eines anti-2,4-D-Antikörpers ermöglicht werden. Zur Verstärkung des piezolelektrischen Signals der Antikörperbindung wurden die Immunoglobuline zunächst an Goldnanopartikel gekoppelt. Damit konnte eine Verstärkung um den Faktor 10 erreicht werden. Allerdings waren die Antikörper-modifizierten Goldnanopartikel nicht langzeitstabil. Daher wurden auch Silica-Nanopartikel als Matrix für die Antikörperkopplung getestet. Mit diesem System konnte eine Verstärkung um den Faktor von 5 bis 13 je nach Grad der Beladung den Nanopartikel mit Antikörper bestimmt werden. Die hohe unspezifische Bindung der Antikörper-Nanopartikel-Konjugate an den Propidium-modifizierten QCM-Sensor konnte keinen empfindlichen 2,4-D-Nachweis ermöglichen. Als Alternative wurde Kokain (Benzoylecgonin, BZE) als Hapten an die Aceytlcholinesterase gekoppelt. Da Kokain selbst auch als Inhibitor im aktiven Zentrum der AChE binden kann, wurden zwei verschiedene Strategien zur Konjugatsynthese verfolgt. Durch Zugabe von Kokain während der Kopplung sollte die kovalente Fixierung des Kokain-Derivats BZE-DADOO im aktiven Zentrum verhindert werden (Konjugat B). In der Tat konnten mit dieser Synthesestrategie 67% der spezifischen Cholinesterase-Aktivität erhalten werden, während im Kokain-freien Ansatz (Konjugat A) nur 2% der Ausgangsaktivität wiedergefunden wurden. Das BZE-AChE-Konjugat ermöglichte auch die Untersuchung der Bindungskinetik der anti-BZE-Antikörper. Dabei konnte eine Assoziationsgeschwindigkeitskonstante ka von 12911 l/(mol•s) berechnet werden. Dieser Wert ist trotz der vergleichsweise geringen Oberflächenbeladung vergleichbar mit den in der Literatur angegebenen Werten. Die Dissoziationsgeschwindigkeitskonstante ist mit 2,89E−3 1/s um den Faktor 30 höher als der Literaturwert. Diese Abweichung ist auf Unterschiede im Bindungsmodell zurückzuführen. Mit beiden BZE-AChE-Konjugaten konnte ein kompetetiver Immunoassay mit Kokain im Fließsystem durchgeführt werden. Dabei zeigte sich für beide Konjugate ein ähnlicher Testmittelpunkt: IC50 = 4,40E−8 mol/l für Konjugat A bzw. IC50 = 1,77E−8 mol/l für Konjugat B. Diese Werte sind vergleichbar zu bereits publizierten Kokainassays im Fließsystem. Wie vorstehend beschrieben, bindet Kokain als Inhibitor auch im aktiven Zentrum von Cholinesterasen. Diese Eigenschaft wurde genutzt, um ein zweites Enzym – Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) – an die BZE-AChE zu binden. Die Spezifität dieser Bindung konnte durch die Abwesenheit einer Affinität der BChE zum Propidium und durch die Blockierbarkeit der Bindung von BChE und BZE-AChE durch Kokain nachgewiesen werden. Damit konnte erfolgreich die Kombination mehrere molekularer Erkennungselemente demonstriert werden. Die Propidium-Plattform ermöglicht den Aufbau einer Architektur aus verschiedenen Cholinesterasen, die über unterschiedliche Bindungsstellen wechselwirken. Sowohl freie als auch BZE-modifizierte AChE können über die Affinität zum Propidium auf dem EQCM-Sensor immobilisiert werden. Mit Kokain als Substrat der Butyrylcholinesterase kann Benzoylecgonin nicht nur als Epitop für die Bindung eines Antikörpers, sondern auch als Erkennungselement für die BChE genutzt werden. Auf der anderen Seite erschwert die geringe Affinität der BChE im Gegensatz zum anti-BZE-Antikörper den Einsatz dieses Systems für analytische Zwecke. Durch die Verwendung anderer Ligand-Enzym-Kombinationen läßt sich das in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Konzept noch weiter ausbauen und ermöglicht damit eine Entwicklung ausgehend von „einfachen“ molekularen Erkennungselementen (MRE) hin zu „multifunktionellen“ Erkennungselementsystemen. In dieser Arbeit konnte demonstriert werden, dass der Aufbau solch komplexe Systeme möglich ist, ohne Abstriche in Bezug auf die Empfindlichkeit der einzelnen Assays hinzunehmen. / This work describes the development of a bifunctional biosensor following a modular assembly approach. This aim is reached through the combination of various molecular recognition elements. The system presented herein uses the following recognition elements: • propidium and the peripheral anionic site of the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) • an organophosphate and the active site of the AChE • a hapten – covalently coupled to the AChE – and the epitope of an antibody • a hapten – covalently coupled to the AChE – binding as a ligand to another enzyme A biosensor is not only characterized by the molecular recognition element, but also by the type of signal transducer. This work is based on an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) device that uses gold-plated quartz sensors for the signal transduction. This allows monitoring two distinct signals at the same time: the piezoelectric determination of a mass loading and the amperometrical detection of enzymatic activity on the sensor surface. Thus two different assay systems are provided: the determination of the inhibition of the AChE activity and ligand binding assay via the hapten. Both tests are based on the modification of the piezoelectric crystals with propidium – a reversible AChE inhibitor. This allows the deposition of AChE on the sensor surface via the interaction with the enzyme’s peripheral anionic site. The enzymatic activity of the in-situ immobilized AChE and the inhibition by organophosphates (pesticides) are measured amperometrically. Another recognition element is introduced by the chemical coupling of a hapten to the cholinesterase. This provides the opportunity bind an antibody to the haptenized cholinesterase that is immobilized on the propidium-modified sensor. Preliminary experiments were focussed on the improvement of the amperometric determination the AChE activity. The applied potential for the oxidation of thiocholine was changed over a range from 150 to 300 mV. The best results for the measured oxidation current and the long-term stability of the propidium-modified sensors were obtained at 200 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl). This potential was used throughout all subsequent experiments. This potential was also found to be lower as compared to mediator-free AChE-biosensors published hitherto. Different organophosphates were evaluated with regard to their inhibition constants to find those which react with active site of the acetylcholinesterase as fast as possible. The assay format used herein monitors the inhibition of the AChE directly in the flow-system. That is, it is not based preincubation of the enzyme with the inhibitor and therefore no inhibition equilibrium is reached. This approach requires fast inhibition kinetics in order to detect the organophosphates highly sensitively. Some of the inhibitors were only available in the phosphothionate form. Thus was necessary to convert these compounds to their respective oxon-forms by N-bromosuccinimide (NBS). The NBS-activation was performed successfully, though the expected inhibition potential could not be reached due to hydrolytic processes. Experiments with diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) und chlorpyriphos-oxon (CPO) could confirm the previous experiments on the inhibtion kinetics. Lower limits of detection of 2E-06 M for DFP and 5E-08 M for CPO could be reached with this approach. Initially 2,4-dichlorphenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was chosen as a hapten for the chemical modification of the acetylcholinesterase. The use of 2,4-D as a herbicide is regulated by the water protection directive of the European Union. 2,4-D was coupled to AChE in different molar ratios from 2,6 : 1 to 260 : 1 (2,4-D : AChE) after activation with a norbornendicarboximido derivative. The chosen coupling method allowed to recover the complete specific activity of the acetylcholinesterase and to bind a specific anti-2,4-D-antibody. Furthermore, the coupling of the immunoglobulins to gold nanoparticles was tested to enhance the piezoelectric signal of the antibody binding. An amplification factor of 10 was reached with this system. However the antibody-coated gold nanoparticles show a very poor long-term stability. Therefore also silica nanoparticles were tested as a matrix for the coupling of the antibodies. This approach yielded an amplification factor from 5 to 13 depending amount of antibodies bound to the nanoparticles. Unfortunately the high non-specific binding of the antibody nanoparticle conjugates did not allow a sensitive 2,4-D detection assay. Cocaine (benzoylecgonine, BZE) was coupled as a hapten to Acetylcholinesterase in an alternative approach. Two different strategies for the synthesis of the conjugate were pursued, since cocaine can bind also bind as an inhibitor for the AChE’s active site. The addition of excess cocaine during the coupling reaction should the covalent binding of the cocaine derivative BZE-DADOO at the active site (conjugate B). Indeed over two thirds of the original specific cholinesterase activity could be recovered with this strategy, while the cocaine-free batch (conjugate A) showed only 2% of the original activity. Furthermore the BZE-AChE conjugate allowed the evaluation of the binding kinetics of the anti-BZE-antibody. The association rate constant ka was calculated to 12911 l/(mol•s). Despite the low surface coverage this value is still comparable to other published results. The dissociation rate constant kd of 2,89E−3 1/s is thirty times higher than values found in the literature. This deviation is due to differences in the applied binding model. Both BZE-AChE conjugates could be applied in a competitive immunoassay for cocaine in the flow system. It was shown that for both conjugates a similar half maximal inhibitory concentration was reached: : IC50 = 4,40E−8 mol/l for conjugate A and IC50 = 1,77E−8 mol/l for conjugate B, respectively. These values are comparable to other published assay for cocaine in a flow system. As described earlier, cocaine is also able to bind to the active site of cholinesterases. This feature was used to examine the interaction of a second enzyme – butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) – with the BZE-AChE. Evidence for the specificity of this interaction was provided by two further experiments, i.e. BChE has no affinity towards Propidium and the binding of BChE towards BZE-AChE could be blocked by excess cocaine. Thus the successful integration of recognition elements on the molecular level could be demonstrated. The propidium-modifies sensor allowed the construction of a scaffold of cholinesterases that interact via different recognition sites. Unmodified and BZE-coupled AChE can be immobilized on the EQCM-sensor via the interaction with propidium. With cocaine being a substrate BChE this compound cannot only be used to capture anti-BZE-antibodies, but also as a recognition element for BChE. The affinity of the BChE towards is relatively low as compared to the antibody’s binding strength, thus making it difficult to employ this system for analytical purposes. Still the concept presented herein can be extended by other ligand-enzyme-combinations. On the basis of “simple” molecular recognition elements this enables the development of “multifunctional” recognition element systems. This work could show that the construction of such complex systems is possible without cutting back with regard to the sensitivity of the individual assays.

Increasing prices of crude oil derived transportation fuels ascended the researches on seeking alternative fuels, in last decades. Moreover, the increasing rate of global warming, because of high greenhouse gas emissions initiated new research for environment-friendly clean alternative fuels. Due to its low NOx emission, good burning characteristics and high cetane number, dimethyl ether (DME) attracted major attention as a transportation fuel alternative. Two possible pathways have been proposed for DME production. One of these pathways is DME synthesis through conventional methanol dehydration. More recently, direct DME synthesis in a single step has attracted significant attention of researchers and fuel producers. Catalysts having two active sites are required for direct DME synthesis from synthesis gas. The aim of this work was to synthesize novel bifunctional direct DME synthesis catalysts and test their activity in a high pressure fixed bed flow reactor. Bifunctional mesoporous catalysts were synthesized by using one-pot hydrothermal synthesis, impregnation and physical mixing methods. These materials were characterized by XRD, EDS, SEM, N2 physisorption and diffuse reflectance FT-IR (DRIFTS) techniques. Characterization results of the catalysts synthesized by one-pot hydrothermal synthesis procedures in basic and acidic routes showed that pH value of the synthesis solution was highly effective on the final physical structure and chemical nature of the catalysts. Increase in the pH value promoted the incorporation of Cu, Zn and Al into the mesoporous MCM-41 structure. Also, effects of Na2CO3 addition on the catalyst structure during the hydrothermal synthesis procedure were investigated. The characterization results showed that metals were incorporated into the catalyst structure successfully. However, surface area results showed that loaded metals blocked the pores of MCM-41 and decreased the surface area of the catalysts. Effects of zirconium (Zr) metal with different weight ratios were also investigated. Results showed that Zr loading increased the surface area of the catalyst. A high pressure fixed bed flow reactor was built and the catalyst testing experiments were performed between the temperature range of 200-400&deg / C, at 50 bars. The activity results of the catalyst synthesized by impregnation method showed that no DME was formed over this catalyst / however it showed promising results for production of methanol and ethanol. Selectivity values of these alcohols were between 0.35 and 0.2. Formation of methane and CO2 indicated the occurrence of reverse dry reforming reaction. Incorporation of Zr into the catalyst structure at neutral synthesis condition caused significant activity enhancement, giving CO conversion values of about 40% at 400&deg / C. Product distribution obtained with this catalyst indicated the formation of DME, ethanol, methanol as well as CH4 and CO2. Highest DME selectivity (60%) was observed with the catalyst prepared by physical mixing of commercial methanol reforming catalyst with silicotungstic acid incorporated methanol dehydration catalyst having W/Si ratio of 0.4.

Synthesis and evaluation of catalytic performances of novel bifunctional 2- aminoDMAP-Thiourea/ Sulfonamide/ Squaramide organocatalysts derived from trans-(R,R)-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine forms the main goal of this thesis. For this purpose, direct selective mono-N-pyridilization of trans-(R,R)-cyclohexane-1,2- diamine via Pd and Cu catalysis is described successfully first. Facile preparation of chiral 2-aminoDMAP core catalaphore led to the development of various 2- aminoDMAP- Thiourea/ Sulfonamides/ Squaramides as bifunctional acid/base organocatalyst libraries (most in two-steps overall) which showed good results in asymmetric conjugate addition of 1,3-dicarbonyls to trans-(&beta / )-nitrostyrene. Enantiomeric excesses (ee) up to 93% were attained.