Insetos abrangem o maior número de espécies descritas, estando distribuídos por praticamente todos os nichos ecológicos. O tubo digestivo destes animais consiste na principal interface entre estes e o meio externo. Assim, o estudo das enzimas digestivas, ou proteínas relacionadas ao processo digestivo em insetos, faz-se fundamental para a tentativa de desenvolver novos métodos de controle que ajam via canal alimentar, como o uso de plantas transgênicas para controlar insetos fitófagos (Felton & Gatehouse, 1996). Diptera superiores são os únicos animais, além dos vertebrados, que apresentam uma região ácida em seu intestino médio (Vonk & Western, 1984). Assim, o estudo da digestão ácida nestes organismos permite-nos examinar em detalhe este interessante paralelismo evolutivo (muito revelador se incluir também aspectos moleculares). Para realização deste estudo foram escolhidas duas enzimas relacionadas com a digestão ácida em Diptera: uma aspártico-proteinase de Musca domestica, semelhante à catepsina D, e uma lisozima digestiva de Drosophila melanogaster. Para purificar a aspártico-proteinase intestinal de M. domestica, ventrículos anterior e médio de larvas deste inseto foram homegeneizados e centrifugados, sendo o sobrenadante resultante utilizado como fonte de enzima. A combinação de uma cromatografia em coluna de troca iônica seguida de uma filtração em gel mostrou-se como a melhor para a obtenção da aspártico-proteinase intestinal de larvas de M. domestica totalmente purificada. Clones de lisozima de D. melanogaster (LysD) e de A. darlingi (Lysdar) foram utilizados na construção de vetores de expressão a seguir usados na transformação de E. coli linhagem OrigamiTMB (DE3) e P. Pastoris GS115 (his4). As bactérias transformadas com vetor pT7-dar (que continha o gene Lysdar), quando induzidas por IPTG, foram capazes de expressar uma proteína, cujo peso molecular em gel de SDS-PAGE é de cerca de 14 kDa, como o esperado. A lisozima hipotética foi encontrada em corpos de inclusão, que solubilizados por SDS 3% resultaram em proteína inativa. Colônias de P. pastoris transformadas com o vetor pPIC-9-D (contendo o gene LysD) foram submetidas a reação em cadeia com DNA polimerase. Aquelas que geraram produtos de PCR de tamanho coerente com o de uma lisozima foram cultivadas e posteriormente, induzidas por metanol. P. pastoris é capaz de secretar a lisozima induzida. Assim, alíquotas do meio de indução foram utilizadas em ensaios enzimáticos para a detecção da atividade da lisozima intestinal de D. melanogaster. A lisozima é expressa em P. pastoris em grande quantidade (12 mg/L) e com atividade preservada. Foi verificado que há uma intima relação entre a força iônica do meio e o pH ótimo da lisozima intestinal recombinante de D. melanogaster. O pH ótimo é deslocado para valores mais ácidos quando em forças iônicas maiores. Em contrapartida, os valores de atividade obtidos para a lisozima D recombinante de D. melanogaster decrescem com o aumento da força iônica do meio. / Insects are the most numerous of living beings and are found in almost all habitats. The midgut of these animals is the main interface between them and their enviroment. Thus, the study of digestive enzymes or of other proteins relateded to the insect digestive process is putatively useful for the development of new insect control strategies. Houseflies (higher Diptera) are the only animals, besides vertebrates, that present an acidic region in the midgut (Vonk & Western, 1984). Due do that, a detailed analysis of the acidic digestion in these insects may disclose molecular evolutionary paralellisms between those animals. Two enzymes were chosen along the aims discussed: a Musca domestica aspartic-proteinase, similar to cathepsin D and a digestive lysozyme from Drosophila melanogaster. To purify the cathepsin D-like proteinase from M. domestica larvae, larval foreguts and midguts were homogeneized, centrifuged, and the resulting supernatant was used as an enzyme source. Ion-exchange chromatography followed by a gel filtration of enzyme extract resulted in a homogeneous preparation of the enzyme. Clones of lysozyme from D. melanogaster (LysD) and A. darling (Lysdar) were used in the construction of expression vectors, which were used to transform E. coli cells (OrigamiTM B(DE3)) and P. pastoris GS115 (his4). Bacteria transformed with pT7-dar (the expression vector which contained the gene Lysdar), when induced by IPTG, expressed a protein with a molecular weight of 14 kDa, as expected for lysozyme. This protein was found in inclusion bodies that were solubilized in 3% SDS resulting in a protein with no activity. After choosing at random P. pastoris colonies transformed with the expression vector pPIC9-D (containing the gene LysD), they were submited to a PCR. The colonies with 366pb products were grown and induced by methanol. P. pastoris was engineered to excrete the expressed proteins. In accordance to that, about 12 mg of lysozyme were recovered from each litter of culture medium. Recombinant D. melanogaster lysozyme D was more active at acid pH values, when present in media with physiological ionic strengths, and its Km value increased with the ionic strength of media. This is agreement with data obtained with lysozyme D isolated from D. melanogaster midgut. The results support the assertion that this enzyme may be used in crystalographic and site mutagenesis studies to reveal the molecular basis of its catalytic properties.

Insetos abrangem o maior número de espécies descritas, estando distribuídos por praticamente todos os nichos ecológicos. O tubo digestivo destes animais consiste na principal interface entre estes e o meio externo. Assim, o estudo das enzimas digestivas, ou proteínas relacionadas ao processo digestivo em insetos, faz-se fundamental para a tentativa de desenvolver novos métodos de controle que ajam via canal alimentar, como o uso de plantas transgênicas para controlar insetos fitófagos (Felton & Gatehouse, 1996). Diptera superiores são os únicos animais, além dos vertebrados, que apresentam uma região ácida em seu intestino médio (Vonk & Western, 1984). Assim, o estudo da digestão ácida nestes organismos permite-nos examinar em detalhe este interessante paralelismo evolutivo (muito revelador se incluir também aspectos moleculares). Para realização deste estudo foram escolhidas duas enzimas relacionadas com a digestão ácida em Diptera: uma aspártico-proteinase de Musca domestica, semelhante à catepsina D, e uma lisozima digestiva de Drosophila melanogaster. Para purificar a aspártico-proteinase intestinal de M. domestica, ventrículos anterior e médio de larvas deste inseto foram homegeneizados e centrifugados, sendo o sobrenadante resultante utilizado como fonte de enzima. A combinação de uma cromatografia em coluna de troca iônica seguida de uma filtração em gel mostrou-se como a melhor para a obtenção da aspártico-proteinase intestinal de larvas de M. domestica totalmente purificada. Clones de lisozima de D. melanogaster (LysD) e de A. darlingi (Lysdar) foram utilizados na construção de vetores de expressão a seguir usados na transformação de E. coli linhagem OrigamiTMB (DE3) e P. Pastoris GS115 (his4). As bactérias transformadas com vetor pT7-dar (que continha o gene Lysdar), quando induzidas por IPTG, foram capazes de expressar uma proteína, cujo peso molecular em gel de SDS-PAGE é de cerca de 14 kDa, como o esperado. A lisozima hipotética foi encontrada em corpos de inclusão, que solubilizados por SDS 3% resultaram em proteína inativa. Colônias de P. pastoris transformadas com o vetor pPIC-9-D (contendo o gene LysD) foram submetidas a reação em cadeia com DNA polimerase. Aquelas que geraram produtos de PCR de tamanho coerente com o de uma lisozima foram cultivadas e posteriormente, induzidas por metanol. P. pastoris é capaz de secretar a lisozima induzida. Assim, alíquotas do meio de indução foram utilizadas em ensaios enzimáticos para a detecção da atividade da lisozima intestinal de D. melanogaster. A lisozima é expressa em P. pastoris em grande quantidade (12 mg/L) e com atividade preservada. Foi verificado que há uma intima relação entre a força iônica do meio e o pH ótimo da lisozima intestinal recombinante de D. melanogaster. O pH ótimo é deslocado para valores mais ácidos quando em forças iônicas maiores. Em contrapartida, os valores de atividade obtidos para a lisozima D recombinante de D. melanogaster decrescem com o aumento da força iônica do meio. / Insects are the most numerous of living beings and are found in almost all habitats. The midgut of these animals is the main interface between them and their enviroment. Thus, the study of digestive enzymes or of other proteins relateded to the insect digestive process is putatively useful for the development of new insect control strategies. Houseflies (higher Diptera) are the only animals, besides vertebrates, that present an acidic region in the midgut (Vonk & Western, 1984). Due do that, a detailed analysis of the acidic digestion in these insects may disclose molecular evolutionary paralellisms between those animals. Two enzymes were chosen along the aims discussed: a Musca domestica aspartic-proteinase, similar to cathepsin D and a digestive lysozyme from Drosophila melanogaster. To purify the cathepsin D-like proteinase from M. domestica larvae, larval foreguts and midguts were homogeneized, centrifuged, and the resulting supernatant was used as an enzyme source. Ion-exchange chromatography followed by a gel filtration of enzyme extract resulted in a homogeneous preparation of the enzyme. Clones of lysozyme from D. melanogaster (LysD) and A. darling (Lysdar) were used in the construction of expression vectors, which were used to transform E. coli cells (OrigamiTM B(DE3)) and P. pastoris GS115 (his4). Bacteria transformed with pT7-dar (the expression vector which contained the gene Lysdar), when induced by IPTG, expressed a protein with a molecular weight of 14 kDa, as expected for lysozyme. This protein was found in inclusion bodies that were solubilized in 3% SDS resulting in a protein with no activity. After choosing at random P. pastoris colonies transformed with the expression vector pPIC9-D (containing the gene LysD), they were submited to a PCR. The colonies with 366pb products were grown and induced by methanol. P. pastoris was engineered to excrete the expressed proteins. In accordance to that, about 12 mg of lysozyme were recovered from each litter of culture medium. Recombinant D. melanogaster lysozyme D was more active at acid pH values, when present in media with physiological ionic strengths, and its Km value increased with the ionic strength of media. This is agreement with data obtained with lysozyme D isolated from D. melanogaster midgut. The results support the assertion that this enzyme may be used in crystalographic and site mutagenesis studies to reveal the molecular basis of its catalytic properties.

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5.4pt;mso-para-margin-top:0in;mso-para-margin-right:0in;mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;mso-para-margin-left:0in;line-height:115%;mso-pagination:widow-orphan;font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri;mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast;mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;}</style><![endif]--></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify">Uvod: Aristolohična kiselina I je nefrotoksična i kancerogena supstanca koja je odgovorna za nefropatiju koja nastaje usled kori&scaron;ćenja herbalnih preparata i čajeva za mr&scaron;avljenje. S obzirom da se ova supstanca može naći u korovskim biljkama, smatra se jednim od glavnih ekotoksikolo&scaron;kih uzroka za nastanak balkanske endemske nefropatije čiji definitivan uzrok jo&scaron; uvek nije otkriven. Toksičnost ove supstance je dokazana na brojnim animalnim modelima, međutim mehanizmi koji dovode do o&scaron;tećenja bubrežnog parenhima jo&scaron; u potpunosti nisu razja&scaron;njeni.<span style="mso-spacerun:yes">&nbsp; </span>Cilj: Doktorska disertacija je koncipirana sa ciljem da se utvrdi uticaj toksičnog jedinjenja aristolohične kiseline I na histopatolo&scaron;ke i imunohistohemijske karakteristike tubulointersticijuma i glomerula bubrega kod mi&scaron;eva, kao i na biohemijske parametre krvi i urina koji ukazuju na o&scaron;tećenje bubrega. Materijal i metode: U ekperimentu je kori&scaron;ćeno 64 mi&scaron;a soja NMRI koji su podeljeni u tri grupe: eksperimentalna grupa (n=32) koja je dobijala aristolohičnu kiselinu I rastvorenu u polietilen glikolu (2,5% PEG 400) u dozi od 10 mg/kg telesne mase, negativna kontrolna grupa koja je dobijala 2,5% PEG 400 (n=16) i kontrolna grupa koja je dobijala fiziolo&scaron;ki rastovor (n=16). Sve životinje su tretirane intraperitonealno svakodnevno tokom sedam dana. Tokom eksperimenta 8., 17., 29. i 59. dana sakupljan je dvadesetčetvoročasovni urin 8 životinja iz eksperimentalne grupe, 4 životinje iz negativne kontrolne i 4 životinje iz kontrolne grupe. Životinje su žrtvovane 9., 18., 30. i 60. dana, uzeta im je krv, dok su bubrezi posebno odvojeni radi histopatolo&scaron;ke analize. Na bubrežnom tkivu sprovedene su histohemijske, imunohistohemijske i morfometrijske analize, dok su na uzorcima seruma i urina sprovedene biohemijske analize. Dobijeni rezultati su testirani adekvatnim statističkim metodama i prikazani su tabelarno i grafički. Rezultati: Nefrotoksin aristolohična kiselina I nakon 7 dana aplikacije izaziva značajno o&scaron;tećenje bubrežnog parenhima. Pri aplikaciji 2,5% PEG 400 i fiziolo&scaron;kog rastvora ne dolazi do vidljivog o&scaron;tećenja bubrežnog parenhima. Histopatolo&scaron;ku sliku u ranoj fazi eksperimenta (9. i 18. dan) karakteri&scaron;e akutna tubulska nekroza proksimalnih tubula. U kasnijoj fazi (30. i 60. dana) uočava se histopatolo&scaron;ka slika hroničnog intersticijalnog nefritisa sa obilnim mononuklearnim ćelijskim infiltratima limfocitnog porekla kao i postojanje blage intersticijalne fibroze. Kod eksperimentalnih životinja je morfometrijskim metodama utvrđen veći stepen bubrežnog o&scaron;tećenja tubulointersticijuma i smanjen broj podocita u glomerulu u odnosu na kontrolne grupe. Biohemijske analize kod većine eksperimentalnih životinja su pokazale veće koncentracije serumske uree nego kod kontrolnih grupa. Takođe je dokazana albuminurija u kasnijoj fazi eksperimenta koja je veća kod životinja izloženih aristolohičnoj kiselini I nego kod životinja iz kontrolnih grupa. Zaključak: Kori&scaron;ćenjem morfometrijskih metoda u okviru histopatolo&scaron;kih i imunohistohemijskih ispitivanja, uz adekvatne biohemijske analize, može se zaključiti da je aristolohična kiselina I izuzetno nefrotoksično jedinjenje koje izaziva izrazite<span style="mso-spacerun:yes">&nbsp; </span>promene tubulointersticijuma i glomerula. Podaci ovog istraživanja predstavljaju polaznu osnovu za dalja istraživanja dijagnostike u ranoj fazi nefropatija izazvanih aristolohičnim kiselinama.<span style="mso-spacerun:yes">&nbsp; </span></p> / <p>Introduction: Aristolochic acid I is a nephrotoxic and carcinogenic substance responsible for nephropathy caused by the use of herbal preparations and teas for slimminng regimen. Since this substance can be found in plants, it is considered one of the major ecotoxicological causes for the emergence of balkan endemic nephropathy whose definitive cause has not yet been revealed. The toxicity of this substance has been proven on numerous animal models, but pathophysiological mechanisms of kidney injury still remain unclear. Aim: The doctoral dissertation was designed to determine the influence of aristolochic acid on the histopathological and immunohistochemical characteristics of tubulointerstitium and glomerulus in mice, as well as the biochemical parameters of blood and urine that indicate kidney injury. Material and methods: For this study, 64 mouse of NMRI strain is used. They are divided into three groups: an experimental group (n=32) that received aristolochic acid I dissolved in polyethylene glycol (2.5% PEG 400) at a dose of 10 mg/kg of body weight, a negative control group that received 2.5% PEG 400 (n=16) and a control group that received only saline (n=16). All animals were treated intraperitoneally daily for seven days. During the experiment on the 8th, 17th, 29th and 59th day, twenty-four-hour urine was collected from 8 animals from the experimental group, 4 animals from the negative control and 4 animals from the control group. Animals were sacrificed on the 9th, 18th, 30th and 60th days, their blood was taken, while the kidneys were taken for histopathological analysis. Histochemical, immunohistochemical and morphometric analyzes were performed on renal tissue, while biochemical analyzes were performed on serum and urine samples. Obtained results were tested with adequate statistical methods and presented in a tables and graphs. Results: After 7 days of application nefrotoxin aristolochic acid I causes significant kidney injury. After application of 2.5% PEG 400 and saline, there was no visible damage to kidney parenchyma. Histopathological changes at the early stage of the experiment (9th and 18th day) were characterized by acute tubular necrosis of proximal tubules. At a later stage (30th and 60th day), chronic interstitial nephritis was observed in kidneys, with abundant mononuclear cell infiltrates in interstitium and presence of mild interstitial fibrosis. In experimental animals, a higher tubulointerstitial score of kidney injury and a decrease in the number of the podocytes in glomerulus were determined by morphometric methods, compared to the control groups. Biochemical analyzes in most experimental animals showed higher blood urea nitrogen concentrations than in control groups. High concentration of albumin in urine can be found in later stages of the experiment, and those concentrations were higher in animals exposed to aristolochic acid I than in animals from control groups.&nbsp; Conclusion: Using morphometric, histopathological and immunohistochemical methods, with adequate biochemical analysis, aristolochic acid I is proven to be an extremely nephrotoxic compound that causes drastic changes in tubulointerstitium and glomeruli of kidney parenhyma. Data from this study can be used for further research into early diagnosis of aristolochic acid nephropathy.</p>