This thesis investigates the design of a model, methods and guidelines that may assist government agencies in South Africa to find a balance between the objective of biodiversity conservation and increased local economic development in cases of land restitution in protected areas. The data collection that was needed for this study took place from 2007 to 2009 and was limited to seven priority protected areas in Mpumalanga Province. The general model design was established via an extensive literature review and analysis of the legal background and formed the theoretical concept of this thesis. The general model design was used to devise the guidelines for co-management to be used by government agencies in South Africa for the possible implementation of the biodiversity conservation and local economic development mandates in cases of land restitution in protected areas, within their financial and institutional limitations. From the results, it is clear that a consolidated government position, agreed upon by all relevant government stakeholders, assists in keeping the land restitution process in protected areas within the legal framework. Through the analysis of the model design in the seven priority protected areas it was identified that additional information is needed to reach the preferred land claim settlement option per protected area such as the actual tourism record, a socio-economic assessment of the environment in which each protected area is embedded, and financial figures to make projections on current and future net profit calculations. Government should support all the land claim settlement options, as elaborated in the model design, which is not the case at the moment, and most alternative options, other than co-management, are currently still unclear and/or not feasible. This might have serious negative implications for the conservation agency, with the risk of compromising its mandate to manage areas of high biodiversity effectively. The methods that were developed to workshop the generic agreement frameworks with the land claimant representatives proved to assist in the land claimants making an informed choice within the legal framework and to tailor the land claim settlement option and agreements to their specific situation. / Development Studies / Ph. D. (Development Studies)

A key challenge in biodiversity is: How many species are there on earth? This issue is especially acute in poorly surveyed regions with high diversity, particularly Southeast Asia that also experiences many limitations such as lack of funds, documents and experts. To help meet this challenge, I have developed a five-tiered approach for diversity measurement of freshwater fish for use in Thailand. This is: (1) the creation of a newly updated species inventory that uses existing data; (2) exploration of the patterns of species richness, endemism, and uniqueness; (3) estimation of the total species richness; (4) investigation of patterns of rarity; and (5) integration of this knowledge into conservation practice. The system should be applicable to other regions and other taxa where a similar challenge exists. My work shows that eight hundred and seventy-two species in 17 orders, 55 families and 255 genera of freshwater fishes, accounting for roughly 10% of the world's freshwater fish diversity, have been reported for Thailand to date. This number was derived from information in the museum collections, literature and all other available sources, including reports written in Thai as well as in English. During this work I uncovered many gaps in biodiversity information, in terms of taxonomic and spatial records, though some families and basins are better represented than others. Taxonomic uncertainty also continues to be a challenge for taxonomists and users. The high diversity of freshwater fishes in Thailand is the result of both high alpha (α) diversity (diversity within a particular locality) and beta (β) diversity (diversity differences between localities). I concluded that the substantial beta diversity I detected is associated with the geographical separation of the six river basins in Thailand. For example, the species composition of freshwater fishes in the Salween Basin dramatically differs from all other basins of Thailand. In contrast, the Chao Phraya Basin and the Mekong Basin contain the greatest number of shared species. Approximately 55% of species have a wide distribution range (being reported from more than two basins), whereas 45% are highly restricted within a single basin. Analyses using species richness estimators suggest that the figure of 872 species is an underestimate and that there may be between 1000 and 1300 fish species in Thailand, in other words an increase of between 14.7% and 49.1% over the list I compiled (which is itself an increase of 52.2% over the last report in 1997). Freshwater fish have become increasingly vulnerable to anthropogenic activities. Of the 872 Thai fish species, 6.8% and 15.1% are globally and nationally threatened, respectively. Nonetheless, a striking feature of the database is that the conservation status of the vast majority of species has not so far been assessed, either globally or nationally. Scientists and policy makers will find these results useful in appreciating the magnitude of the tasks involved in surveying, describing and conserving the country's freshwater fish biota. My work highlights localities and taxa where conservation is a priority and is thus an important resource for policy makers and conservation planners concerned with the management of freshwater fish in Thailand.

As rural populations decrease and cities expand, the importance of urban ecological research becomes globally significant. Urban ecology seeks to understand the complex relationships between human settlements and their ecological contexts in an attempt to ensure sustainable futures. The discipline of urban ecology is at the forefront of the conflict between human perceptions, economy, and politics. Despite numerous studies conducted in urban areas in South Africa, no one city has yet synthesized all the amassed research conducted within its city limits. A shortage of detailed ecological data, therefore, led to an extensive study of urban open spaces in some cities of the North-West Province encompassing multiple disciplines. Consequently, this study attempts to consolidate and evaluate all the existing urban ecological research in South Africa and specifically, in the city of Potchefstroom. Firstly, a comprehensive overview of South African urban ecological literature discussing the early development, research themes and the future of urban ecology in South Africa was carried out. Three hundred and fourteen publications were reviewed and categorized into the following research themes: physical environment, biodiversity, management, conservation, planning, human needs, sustainability, public participation, ecosystem services, and resilience. Secondly, as researchers have long been interested in studying and explaining patterns of biodiversity in natural and anthropogenic landscapes, many theories have been proposed on the drivers of these patterns and numerous studies compare current land-use effects with biotic assemblages. However, a much-neglected perspective in urban ecological research is the impact of the history of the landscape. Consequently, the second paper investigated the possible time lags in the response of temperate natural grasslands to urbanization and the factors driving these changes. Thirdly, a study of the temporal vegetation dynamics of urban grasslands in Potchefstroom over a 17-year period was carried out. Open grasslands, woody vegetation sites, and vacant lots were resurveyed within the city limits. The potential change in species richness and abundance of species, and the differences in species composition between these three habitat types were compared. Lastly, the fourth paper synthesizes all the relevant existing interdisciplinary research carried out of urban open spaces in Potchefstroom. This is evaluated against municipal governance and management strategies, environmental law, public opinion and the steep spatially organized socio-economic gradient found in Potchefstroom, informing the progress towards a sustainable, liveable city. The results of the literature study indicated that there were various gaps within each theme that need to be addressed in future. In the study on the effects of urbanization history on observed vegetation patterns, the woody vegetation showed important time lags in the response of indigenous species richness to urbanization. The measures altitude and the road network density of natural areas were the most frequent predictors of species richness. Results of the temporal vegetation dynamics of urban grasslands indicated that in the relatively short 17 year period most vegetation diversity indices changed significantly, specifically a significant decrease in indigenous species richness of both grasslands and woody communities were noted. The synthesis of all the studies carried out in Potchefstroom revealed an impressive number of studies carried out, however most of the biodiversity groups were represented by a single investigation only. Evaluating the results with the IDP revealed than much of the known ecological information in Potchefstroom remains undiscovered by municipal policymakers. Moreover, proposed future development is planned for some of the highest biodiversity sites. This synthesis and the subsequent identification of the gaps in our understanding and research themes will allow a purposeful and informed advancement of the science of urban ecology in South Africa and the contribution thereof towards advancing urban ecology globally. In addition, the history of urbanization affects contemporary vegetation assemblages in urban areas indicating potential extinction debts. Moreover, the significant decreases in indigenous species richness of woody and grassland sites have important consequences for urban grassland conservation in South Africa. Subsequently, the knowledge and the identification of research gaps allow decision makers in Potchefstroom to plan for sustainable future solutions and for this city to emerge as a leading role player in the South African urban ecological context. The results of this thesis could be a substantial practical aid in policy and management strategies furthering decision makers in the pursuit of the elusive goal of developing sustainable cities. / PhD (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

As rural populations decrease and cities expand, the importance of urban ecological research becomes globally significant. Urban ecology seeks to understand the complex relationships between human settlements and their ecological contexts in an attempt to ensure sustainable futures. The discipline of urban ecology is at the forefront of the conflict between human perceptions, economy, and politics. Despite numerous studies conducted in urban areas in South Africa, no one city has yet synthesized all the amassed research conducted within its city limits. A shortage of detailed ecological data, therefore, led to an extensive study of urban open spaces in some cities of the North-West Province encompassing multiple disciplines. Consequently, this study attempts to consolidate and evaluate all the existing urban ecological research in South Africa and specifically, in the city of Potchefstroom. Firstly, a comprehensive overview of South African urban ecological literature discussing the early development, research themes and the future of urban ecology in South Africa was carried out. Three hundred and fourteen publications were reviewed and categorized into the following research themes: physical environment, biodiversity, management, conservation, planning, human needs, sustainability, public participation, ecosystem services, and resilience. Secondly, as researchers have long been interested in studying and explaining patterns of biodiversity in natural and anthropogenic landscapes, many theories have been proposed on the drivers of these patterns and numerous studies compare current land-use effects with biotic assemblages. However, a much-neglected perspective in urban ecological research is the impact of the history of the landscape. Consequently, the second paper investigated the possible time lags in the response of temperate natural grasslands to urbanization and the factors driving these changes. Thirdly, a study of the temporal vegetation dynamics of urban grasslands in Potchefstroom over a 17-year period was carried out. Open grasslands, woody vegetation sites, and vacant lots were resurveyed within the city limits. The potential change in species richness and abundance of species, and the differences in species composition between these three habitat types were compared. Lastly, the fourth paper synthesizes all the relevant existing interdisciplinary research carried out of urban open spaces in Potchefstroom. This is evaluated against municipal governance and management strategies, environmental law, public opinion and the steep spatially organized socio-economic gradient found in Potchefstroom, informing the progress towards a sustainable, liveable city. The results of the literature study indicated that there were various gaps within each theme that need to be addressed in future. In the study on the effects of urbanization history on observed vegetation patterns, the woody vegetation showed important time lags in the response of indigenous species richness to urbanization. The measures altitude and the road network density of natural areas were the most frequent predictors of species richness. Results of the temporal vegetation dynamics of urban grasslands indicated that in the relatively short 17 year period most vegetation diversity indices changed significantly, specifically a significant decrease in indigenous species richness of both grasslands and woody communities were noted. The synthesis of all the studies carried out in Potchefstroom revealed an impressive number of studies carried out, however most of the biodiversity groups were represented by a single investigation only. Evaluating the results with the IDP revealed than much of the known ecological information in Potchefstroom remains undiscovered by municipal policymakers. Moreover, proposed future development is planned for some of the highest biodiversity sites. This synthesis and the subsequent identification of the gaps in our understanding and research themes will allow a purposeful and informed advancement of the science of urban ecology in South Africa and the contribution thereof towards advancing urban ecology globally. In addition, the history of urbanization affects contemporary vegetation assemblages in urban areas indicating potential extinction debts. Moreover, the significant decreases in indigenous species richness of woody and grassland sites have important consequences for urban grassland conservation in South Africa. Subsequently, the knowledge and the identification of research gaps allow decision makers in Potchefstroom to plan for sustainable future solutions and for this city to emerge as a leading role player in the South African urban ecological context. The results of this thesis could be a substantial practical aid in policy and management strategies furthering decision makers in the pursuit of the elusive goal of developing sustainable cities. / PhD (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The Mogale’s Gate Biodiversity Centre is a 3 060 ha reserve located within the Gauteng province. The area comprises grassland with woodland patches in valleys and lower-lying areas. To develop a scientifically based management plan a detailed vegetation study was undertaken to identify and describe the different ecosystems present. From a TWINSPAN classification twelve plant communities, which can be grouped into nine major communities, were identified. A classification and description of the plant communities, as well as, a management plan are presented. The area comprises 80% grassland and 20% woodland with 109 different plant families. The centre has a grazing capacity of 5.7 ha/LSU with a moderate to good veld condition. From the results of this study it is clear that the area makes a significant contribution towards carbon storage with a total of 0.520 tC/ha/yr stored in all the plant communities. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Understanding the distribution, abundance and diversity of species and the mechanisms causing these patterns has been the interest of ecologists and taxonomists for decades. The exceptionally high plant diversity in the Fynbos biome has been well studied. Whilst early arguments suggested that the high plant diversity is not reflected in the arthropod diversity and that insect species richness is low compared to other comparable areas, these observations might have been hampered by the taxonomic impediment. Despite global recognition of the significance of this below-ground component of diversity for ecosystem functioning, soil is one of the most poorly studied habitats of terrestrial ecosystems. Although knowledge is increasing for epigaeic groups, other significant groups such as the Collembola remain especially poorly understood. This thesis starts addressing this serious gap in knowledge concerning the below-ground component of biodiversity in the Fynbos biome and the effects of landscape transformation thereon. As part of the work, considerable attention was given to resolving the taxonomic impediment for the springtail fauna of the Fynbos biome using modern morphological and DNA barcoding methods, while also examining the correlates of soil animal diversity in the biome, by using Collembola (springtails) as exemplars. First, using a combination of published records of Collembola from South Africa, various sampling methods and DNA barcoding, a species list is compiled for the Western Cape. Currently 213 species are known to exist from the Western Cape. A high level of cryptic diversity was also found in several genera, together with several potential species radiations in the Ectonura, Seira, Parisotoma and Cryptopygus. A start is a made at addressing the lack of taxonomic knowledge by describing five new species. Two Ectonura Cassagnau 1980 species are described from Betty’s Bay and Grootvadersbosch respectively and a key to the Neanurinae of South Africa is provided. The first record of the genus Triacanthella Schäffer, 1897 is described from a cave in Table Mountain, while two new species of Delamarephorura are described and the genera Spicatella Thibaud 2002 and Delamarephorura Weiner & Najt 1999 are synonymized. Although fire is thought to be the main form of decomposition in the Fynbos biome, recent work has shown that biological decomposition may be more important than previously thought. I examine the resilience of Collembola after a large-scale fire in Jonkershoek Nature Reserve using quantitative sampling which is temporally replicated. The resilience of invertebrate fauna in the fynbos is not well understood, thus I investigate the diversity of Collembola before and after a major fire. Results show Collembola species richness and abundance recovered surprisingly quickly after the fire. On a larger scale, litterbags were deployed at six sites across the Western Cape using different litter types. Here, a total of 113 morphospecies species was found. Local richness was found to be highest in Kogelberg (32 species), while the turnover between sites was also high. Thus, the degradation of local habitat patches will be as much of a threat to Collembola as to the endemic plants in this region. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Begrip van die verspreiding, spesierykheid en verskeidenheid van spesies en die meganismes wat hierdie patrone veroorsaak is al die belangstelling van ekoloë en taksonome vir dekades. Die buitengewoon hoë plant diversiteit in die Fynbos-bioom is goed bestudeer. Terwyl vroeë argumente voorstel dat die hoë plantdiversiteit nie weerspieël word in die geleedpotige diversiteit nie en dat insekspesierykheid laag is in vergelyking met ander gebiede, kon hierdie waarnemings nie gemaak word nie as gevolg van taksonomiese hindernisse. Ten spyte van die wêreldwye erkenning van die belangrikheid van hierdie ondergrondse komponent van diversiteit vir die funksionering van die ekosisteem, is die grond een van die swakste bestudeerde habitatte van terrestriële ekosisteme. Alhoewel kennis vermeerder vir bogrondse groepe, word ander belangrike groepe soos die Collembola swak verstaan. Hierdie tesis begin hierdie ernstige leemte in kennis aanspreek, met betrekking tot die ondergrondse komponent van biodiversiteit in die Fynbos bioom en die gevolge van die landskap transformasie daarop. As deel van die werk, is heelwat aandag gegee aan die oplossing van die taksonomiese hindernis vir die springstert fauna van die fynbos bioom met behulp van moderne morfologiese en DNA metodes, terwyl dit ook die ooreenkomste van grond diere diversiteit ondersoek in die bioom, deur gebruik te maak van Collembola (springsterte) as voorbeelde. Eerste, met behulp van 'n kombinasie van gepubliseerde rekords van Collembola van Suid-Afrika, verskillende kolleksie metodes en DNA metodes is 'n spesielys saamgestel vir die Wes-Kaap. Tans is 213 spesies bekend vir die Wes-Kaap. 'n Hoë vlak van kriptiese diversiteit is ook gevind in verskeie genera, saam met verskeie potensiële spesies radiasies in die Ectonura, Seira, Parisotoma en Cryptopygus. 'n Begin is gemaak op die aanspreek van die gebrek van taksonomiese kennis deur vyf nuwe spesies te beskryf. Twee Ectonura Cassagnau 1980 spesies van Bettiesbaai en Grootvadersbosch is beskryf en 'n sleutel tot die Neanurinae van Suid-Afrika word verskaf. Die eerste rekord van die genus Triacanthella Schaffer, 1897 word beskryf van 'n grot in Tafelberg, terwyl twee nuwe spesies van Delamarephorura beskryf word en die genera Spicatella Thibaud 2002 en Delamarephorura Weiner & Najt 1999 gesinomiseer word. Hoewel vuur beskou word as die belangrikste vorm van ontbinding in die Fynbos bioom, het onlangse werk getoon dat die biologiese ontbinding belangriker mag wees as wat voorheen vermoed was. Ek ondersoek die veerkragtigheid van Collembola na 'n groot skaal vuur in Jonkershoek Natuurreservaat met behulp van kwantitatiewe steekproefneming wat tydelik herhaal. Die veerkragtigheid van ongewerwelde fauna in die fynbos word nie goed verstaan nie, dus het ek ondersoek ingestel na die diversiteit van Collembola voor en na 'n groot vuur. Resultate toon dat Collembola se spesierykheid en hoveelheid verbasend vinnig herstel na die vuur. Op 'n groter skaal, is kolleksies by ses plekke regoor die Wes-Kaap gebruik en verskillende blaarafval word vergelyk. Hier word 'n totaal van 113 morfologiese spesies gevind. Daar is gevind dat die hoogste aantal spesies in Kogelberg is (32 spesies), terwyl die omset tussen plekke baie hoog was. So sal die agteruitgang van plaaslike habitatte net soveel van 'n bedreiging inhou vir Collembola as vir die endemiese plante in hierdie streek.

Die Nutzung von Waldökosystemen hat eine lange Tradition in Deutschland. Wie allerdings dieser Eingriff in das Ökosystem Wald die wichtigsten Symbiosepartner der Bäume– die Mykorrhizapilze – beeinflusst, ist noch nicht ausreichend verstanden. In temperaten Wäldern bilden die Ektomykorrhiza-Pilze (EM) die vorherrschende Form dieser Symbiose an Bäumen. Bei dieser Symbiose profitiert der Pilz-Partner von der Versorgung mit Kohlehydraten. Der Pflanzen-Partner erhält Nährstoffe wie beispielsweise Stickstoff (N). Die „Pflanzen-Ökonomie-Theorie“ impliziert, dass Bäume weniger Kohlehydrate in ihre EM-Partner investieren, wenn Nährstoffe leicht verfügbar sind. In diesem Fall sind sie nicht so sehr auf die Unterstützung ihrer EM-Partner angewiesen. Zusätzlich zu EM-Pilzen wachsen Pilze mit anderen Lebensweisen in oder an Baumwurzeln, wie zum Beispiel Endophyten, Saprophyten oder auch Pathogenen. Zusammen bilden sie die Gemeinschaft der wurzelassoziierten Pilze. Bisher gibt es nur wenig Information darüber, wie diese Gemeinschaft der wurzelassoziierten Pilze auf waldbauliche Maßnahmen reagiert. Es ist deshalb von großer Bedeutung, diesen Einfluss, mit Bezug auf die differenzierten Lebensweisen, besser zu verstehen. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Doktorarbeit war es, Veränderungen in der Struktur der Gemeinschaft wurzelassoziierter Pilze, in Bezug auf waldbauliche Maßnahmen und verschiedene Umweltparameter, zu untersuchen. Relevant war dabei der Bezug zu unterschiedlichen, pilzlichen Lebensweisen. Untersucht wurden hierzu Einflüsse verschiedener Umweltparameter und Waldbauintensitäten auf die pilzliche Gemeinschaft mit Hilfe von Pyrosequenzierung. Ebenso wurde die Ernte eines Baumes simuliert, indem Bodenbereiche frei von lebenden Wurzeln erzeugt wurden. Die taxonomische und funktionelle Diversität, letztere repräsentiert durch Explorations-Typen der EM-Hyphen, wurde über eineinhalb Jahre beobachtet. Die Untersuchungsflächen der Biodiversitäts-Exploratorien in der Schwäbischen Alb, dem Hainich-Dün und der Schorfheide Chorin unterscheiden sich in der Intensität des Waldbaus, der Baumartenzusammensetzung, dem Klima sowie Bodenparametern und bieten daher eine exzellente Möglichkeit, um folgende Forschungsziele und Hypothesen zu untersuchen: (I) Die Charakterisierung der wurzelassoziierten Pilze in temperaten Wäldern in Deutschland war eines der Hauptziele dieser Arbeit. Die Gemeinschaft der wurzelassoziierten Pilze wurde mit 454-Pyrosequenzierung auf Waldflächen der Biodiversitäts-Exploratorien untersucht. Diese wurde mittels intensiver Literaturrecherche in verschiedene Lebensgemeinschaften gegliedert. Die gesamte pilzliche Gemeinschaft unterschied sich hauptsächlich je nach dominierender Hauptbaumart der Fläche. Diese Unterschiede wurden maßgeblich durch EM-Pilze verursacht, da diese über 60% derjenigen Pilze ausmachten, denen eine Lebensweise zugeordnet werden konnte. Die Gemeinschaft der saprophytischen Pilze wurde hingegen mehr durch regionale Herkunft beeinflusst. Die saporphytischen Pilze machten etwa 20% derjenigen Pilze aus, denen eine Lebensweise zugeordnet werden konnte. Andere Lebensweisen, wie beispielsweise Endophyten oder Pathogene, waren im Pyrosequenzierungs-Datensatz unterrepräsentiert, weshalb für sie keine verlässlichen Berechnungen durchgeführt werden konnten. (II) Ein anderes wichtiges Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die „Pflanzen-Ökonomie-Theorie“ großräumig zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurde die Hypothese aufgestellt, dass es einen Zusammenhang zwischen Intensität der Waldbewirtschaftung, Wurzelstickstoff- und Wurzelkohlehydrat-Konzentration sowie dem Artenreichtum, der Diversität und der Gemeinschaftstruktur der EM-Pilze gibt. (III) Darüber hinaus wurde angenommen, dass verschiedene biotische und abiotische Umweltparameter die Gemeinschaft der EM und der saprophytischen Pilze unterschiedlich beeinflussen, basierend auf ihrer differenten Lebensweise. Kohlenstoff (C)-, Stickstoff (N)-, Glukose- und Fruktosekonzentrationen der Wurzel wurde hierfür gemessen. Informationen zu Bodenparametern wie beispielsweise pH, C- und N-Gehalt des Bodens der gleichen Flächen wurden dankenswerter Weise von anderen Arbeitsgruppen der Biodiversitäts-Exploratorien bereitgestellt. Zusätzlich waren Indices, welche die Intensität der waldbaulichen Maßnahmen auf diesen Flächen beschreiben, vorhanden und wurden zum Vergleich herangezogen. Die Glukosekonzentration der Wurzeln schien mehr Einfluss auf Artenanzahl und Gemeinschaft der EM-Pilze zu haben, als die Fruktosekonzentration. Generelle lineare und adaptive Modelle deuten eine dynamische Interaktion zwischen der Gemeinschaft der EM, forstlicher Maßnahmen sowie N- und Glukosekonzentration der Wurzeln an. Dies könnte beispielsweise auf den Nährstoff-Austrag bei der Ernte von Bäumen zurückzuführen sein. Darüber hinaus steigt die Glukosekonzentration mit der Intensität des Waldbaus an, was auf eine bessere Lichtversorgung einzelner Bäume hindeuten könnte. Der Artenreichtum von EM-Pilzen war positiv mit der Intensität des Waldbaus korreliert. Die vorliegende Studie zeigte auch, dass unter niedriger N- und hoher Glukosekonzentration in den Wurzeln die Diversität der EM-Pilze erhöht war. Für die saprophytischen Pilze konnte dieser Zusammenhang nicht eindeutig gezeigt werden. Die Diversität saprophytischer Pilze war negativ mit der Intensität des Waldbaus korreliert. Zudem waren sie von dem allgemeinen C-Gehalt der Wurzeln sowie einigen Spurenelementen abhängig und profitierten vermutlich über Wurzelexudate vor allem von Fruktose. Bodenparameter und regionale Herkunft erklärten die Gemeinschaftsstruktur der saprophytischen Pilze besser als die der EM. Insgesamt wurde gezeigt, dass die Hauptbaumart der Fläche, Bodenparameter wie pH, die Versorgung der Wurzel mit Glukose und der Einfluss durch waldbauliche Maßnahmen die Haupteinflussfaktoren für Artenreichtum, Diversität und Gemeinschaftsstruktur der EM-Pilze sind. (IV) Mit einem kleinräumigen Störungs-Experiment wurde untersucht, ob Wurzelstreu, welche zum Beispiel bei der Ernte eines Baumes anfällt, lokal die EM-Gemeinschaft beeinflusst. Hierfür wurden auf Buchen dominierten Untersuchungsflächen im Hainich Wurzeln im Boden von ihrem Baum abgetrennt. Aus dieser Behandlung ergaben sich Bereiche, die frei von lebenden Wurzeln waren. Der Abbau der Wurzelstreu sowie die Wiederbesiedlung dieser Bereiche wurden über einen Zeitraum von eineinhalb Jahren beobachtet. Die EM-Gemeinschaft in ungestörten Bereichen diente hierbei als Kontrolle. Nach eineinhalb Jahren erreichte die EM Gemeinschaft wieder den Klimax-Status der ungestörten Kontrollen. Für die Wiederbesiedlung der gestörten Bereiche waren hauptsächlich diejenigen Pilze von Bedeutung, die auch in den ungestörten Kontrollen häufig zu finden waren. Auch Unterschiede in der Funktionalität der wieder besiedelnden EM-Pilze wurden untersucht. Während des ersten Jahres des Wiederbesiedlungsprozesses waren EM mit einem „Kurzen-Distanz“ Hyphen-Explorations-Typ von Bedeutung. Dies wurde möglicherweise durch die Stickstoffabgabe degradierender Wurzeln beeinflusst. Zusammenfassend zeigte diese Studie in großem Maßstab, dass Waldbau die EM-Pilz-Gemeinschaft positiv und die saprophytische Gemeinschaft negativ beeinflusst. Der positive Einfluss könnte auf zwei Hauptursachen basieren: Kurzfristig verursachen Störungen im Wurzelbereich Veränderungen in der EM-Gemeinschaft. Langfristig sind Umweltparameter, wie der Austrag von Nährstoffen durch die Baumernte, sowie die Erhöhung der Kohlehydratkonzentration durch erhöhte Lichtverfügbarkeit wahrscheinlich ausschlaggebender. Der negative Einfluss auf die saprophytischen Pilze wird vermutlich durch einen geringeren Totholzanteil in stark genutzten Wäldern mit verursacht. Es wurde in großem Maßstab gezeigt, dass Glukose wichtiger für die EM-Gemeinschaft zu sein scheint als Fruktose. Dies war vorher vor allem in Laborstudien untersucht worden. Das kleinräumige Störungs- Experiment zeigte eine hohe Resilienz der EM-Gemeinschaft.

published_or_final_version / abstract / Ecology and Biodiversity / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

This thesis describes an in-depth study of limestone pavements across North West England and North Wales. The aim was to combine elements of geodiversity and biodiversity in order to create a holistic limestone pavement classification to inform future management. A field-based research protocol was used to assess a stratified random sample (46 pavements), accounting for approximately 10% of the limestone pavements in the geographical area. Detailed analyses of key elements are presented, along with important issues that continue to pose threats to this Annex One Priority Habitat. This research resulted in a comprehensive classification, using TWINSPAN analysis and Nonmetric Multidimensional Scaling, identifying six distinct holistic functional groups. The prime factors driving limestone pavement morphology, and hence the classification, were established to be lithology, proximity to structural fault, altitude and human intervention, particularly in terms of grazing intensity. Three upland, open limestone pavement classes were formed. Of these, the richest in terms of geodiversity and biodiversity was the group with the thickest bedding planes and hence the deepest grikes, typically greater than 1m. The class that was most species-poor was "at the highest altitude (above 450m), formed on the thin limestones of the Yoredales. These were characterised by shallow, wide grikes. The third upland limestone pavement group had mid-range grikes, generally 0.5-1m in depth, and small clints. Two wooded classes were identified. One was a lowland 'classic' wooded limestone pavement group with deep, narrow grikes and shallow soils. Indicator species included Juniperus communis and Taxus baccata. The second wooded group was situated proximal to a major structural fault. In this group the pavement dip ranged between 10°-40° with well-runnelled clints that were heavily moss-covered. The sixth group was low altitude, proximal to the coast, characterised by low moss growth, un-vegetated clints and the presence of Ulex europaeus. Conservation management was identified as key to the quality of the limestone pavement habitat and this thesis identifies best management practises and links these to the holistic limestone pavement classification. Finally, as a sample case study, this thesis presents mollusc species and diversity from eleven of the Yorkshire limestone pavements. Analysis establishes significant links between geodiversity and mollusc populations, with key drivers for mollusc communities echoing those of plant species on limestone pavement.

Agro-biodiversity in the desert oases of Baja California, Mexico is a product of isolation and integration through time and across the various spaces of the peninsula. The oases hold heirloom perennial crop species first introduced by Jesuit missionaries (1697-1768) and represent geographies of historical dissemination. I selected fifteen Jesuit mission oases and surveyed the oasis gardens for species richness and abundance. To understand the cultural, political and economic forces that create these patterns of persistence within the oases, I conducted interviews on farming system practices, geographical remoteness, market integration, land tenure, tourism, protected area status and cultural practices. In all, I surveyed 241 gardens and documented eighty-nine total perennial crop species. Historical records in 1774 describe twenty-one perennial crop species in cultivation after the Jesuit expulsion. I calculated species-area relationships and rank-abundance for total perennial and mission crop species in each oasis and inventory comparisons for those oases with quantitative historical data to analyze retention of historic mission species. A high persistence of mission species indicates that oases serve as agro-biodiversity refugia, or protected source areas for agricultural species. These mission-oases act as a network of interconnected sites that are also isolated from one another and the Mexican mainland by the rugged environment, limited transportation infrastructure, and by sea. Within the network, these fifteen oases span a range of small and hours distant from the nearest resource center, to fully urbanized with international ports and airports. I describe how phases and processes of isolation and connectivity shape and transform the agro-biodiversity profiles in this archipelago of peninsula oases.