During summer of 1998 and 1999, 34 and 10 vineyard sites, respectively, were sampled to assess spider mite pests and associated biological control by phytoseiid mites. Vineyards studied spanned five major valleys in western Oregon where grape production occurs. Leaf samples were taken from site perimeters and centers. One leaf was taken every ten meters of border length, five meters inward from the border to prevent wind-biased or extreme edge effects, while 20 leaves were taken at regular intervals from centers. Variables recorded at each site were: plant age, grape variety, chemical spray information and local vegetation occurring in proximity to vineyards. Sites were categorized as either agricultural or riparian based on what surrounding vegetation type was in the majority. Several parametric and non-parametric tests were used to analyze data, including multiple linear regressions using a computer-based genetic algorithm in conjunction with the AIC criterion to pre-select a subset of explanatory variables. Typhlodromus pyri was the predominant phytoseiid mite and Tetranychus urticae was the most abundant tetranychid mite sampled. High levels of T. urticae were found when predator densities were very low, and low levels of T. urticae occurred when predator densities were moderate or high. Phytoseiid densities were highest in June and July, while T. urticae densities were highest from August to September. The latter's densities were significantly higher in vineyards surrounded primarily by agriculture, while phytoseiid densities were not significantly different between the two categories. Predatory phytoseiids had significantly higher densities on vineyard edges, while T. urticae densities were higher in vineyard centers. Caneberry, cherry and grape habitats appeared to be sources of predator immigration, while no vegetation type consistently served as a short-range or nearby immigration source for spider mites. Due to insufficient data, pesticide information was not included in multiple linear regression models, although certain chemicals used in vineyards can potentially impact mite populations. Impacts of surrounding vegetation type, grape variety, regional location, plant age, and presence of other mites on phytoseiid and T. urticae densities are discussed. / Graduation date: 2001

Graduation date: 1998

Intra- and interplant movement and dispersal of the predator mites Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) and Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman) were studied on both lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) and apple (Malus pumila Miller) branch plant systems that were seeded with excess numbers of the spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch. Individuals of either predator were randomly selected from colonies of well-fed, mixed-age adult females and moved to test plants. When tested separately in each plant system, median leaf positions of N. californicus from the point of release were greater than those of N. fallacis at 1-8 d. A fan placed in front of a common source unit (1x3m) containing T. urticae and near equal densities of both predaceous mites, provided continuous air (wind) to 3 isolated receiver units located 2.5, 5, and 7.5 m downwind. Receiver units consisted of continuous bean foliage with excess T. urticae, but no predators. Wind speeds at the source and each receiver unit averaged 2.2, 0.9, 0.4, and 0.03 m/s respectively. As predators eliminated prey, N. fallacis dispersed earlier at higher prey densities and further downwind than N. californicus, but cumulative densities of each predator in all receiver units were alike after 20 d. Results of both plant movement studies supported the hypothesis that N. californicus has dispersal traits more like those of a generalist predator of spider mites than does N. fallacis. Spatial patterns of dispersal and biological control of pest mites are discussed in relation to predation types within the Phytoseiidae. / Graduation date: 1997

Solenopsis invicta, the red imported fire ant, has recently become associated with Antonina graminis, an invasive pest, and Neodusmetia sangwani, biological control agent, and maybe negatively affecting established biological control. A preliminary survey outlined the range of A. graminis and its parasitoids, and found N. sangwani was present at a reduced rate in South Texas and in the southeastern United States. A greenhouse experiment demonstrated that S. invicta decreased the rate of parasitism of A. graminis by N. sangwani, with S. invicta directly interfering with oviposition. Interactions between S. invicta and A. gaminis may be facilitating the spread and establishment of two invasive pests which has a negative impact on established classical biological control of A. graminis by N. sangwani.

Diorhabda elongata elongata leaf beetles were released at two field locations in the upper Colorado River watershed of Texas in 2003 and 2004 for the biological control of invasive Tamarix, exotic trees deteriorating riparian ecosystems of western North America. Establishment and biological success were monitored using trees on transects from the release points. D. elongata elongata released at the Lake Thomas site in August 2003 successfully overwintered and were recovered in the spring 2004; however, beetles were not present after June 2004. The April 2004 release at Beals Creek led to establishment and survival during 2005 and 2006. Mean abundance increased from less than five insects per tree per 2 minute count in August 2004 to more than 40 insects per tree per 2 minute count in August 2006. By then the population was dispersed throughout an area of approximately 12 hectares and beetles were present on 100% of the 47 trees surveyed, 57% of which were at least 90% defoliated. To measure the impact of beetle defoliation on Tamarix, nonstructural carbohydrates (NCHOs) were measured in manipulative field cage experiments in Texas and natural experiments in Nevada. There was no significant difference in NCHOs between trees with versus trees without beetle herbivory in the cage experiment, although spring foliage regrowth was reduced by 35% in trees defoliated the previous fall. In Nevada, root crown tissue was sampled in 2005 and 2006 from trees that had experienced 0-4 years of defoliation. In 2005, NCHO concentrations differed between tree stands and ranged from 9.0 ± 0.8% (Mean ± SE) in non-defoliated trees to 3.2 ± 0.4%, 2.1 ± 0.4% and 2.3 ± 0.4% in trees defoliated for 1, 2 and 3 successive years, respectively. NCHO concentrations in 2006 were similar, ranging from 13.6 ± 0.9% in non-defoliated trees to 7.6 ± 0.8%, 2.3 ± 0.4%, 1.5 ± 0.3% and 1.7 ± 0.4% in trees defoliated for 1, 2, 3 and 4 years, respectively. The establishment, biological success and host impact of D. elongata leaf beetles suggest there is potential for biological control of Tamarix in the United States.

In the so-called induced systemic resistance phenomenon (ISR), some non pathogenic rhizobacteria are able to stimulate defence mechanisms in the host plant thereby rendering it less susceptible to subsequent phytopathogen attack. This immunization process is initiated into the plant following the perception of elicitors (or determinants) produced by the beneficial microorganism. Previous studies performed in our laboratory have demonstrated the ability of Pseudomonas putida strain BTP1 and Bacillus subtilis strain S499 (or M4) at triggering ISR. By using these two rhizobacteria, the global objective of this thesis is to contribute to a better understanding of this molecular dialogue between ISR-inducing bacteria and plant cells. Our first researches with BTP1 led to the isolation, as an elicitor, of a new compound produced by Pseudomonas. It was purified from bacterial culture supernatant and identified as a benzylamine core alkylated with two methyl and one tetradecyl groups, conferring its hydrophobic properties. On the basis of this structure, the BTP1 determinant was called NABD, for N-Alkylated Benzylamine Derivative. By testing the pure molecule or mutant strains altered in its production, we have shown that NABD was mainly responsible for ISR-activity of the BTP1 strain on bean and cucumber while in tomato, another unidentified compound could also be involved. In the case of Bacillus subtilis S499, we used similar approaches to demonstrate for the first time that the lipopeptides surfactin and fengycin may act as elicitors to stimulate systemic resistance, thereby attributing them a new role in the biocontrol of plant diseases. Structure/activity studies have revealed the implication of the benzylamine aromatic core in the biological activity of NABD. In the case of surfactin, reduced activity of some homologues indicates that its perception is dictated by structural clues such as the length of the acyl moiety and the presence of charges in the cyclic peptide part. Also in support to their involvement in ISR triggering, significant quantities of NABD and lipopeptides were recovered from the rhizosphere of bacterized plants. The influence of some physiological and physico-chemical factors on NABD production by BTP1 was further investigated in in vitro experiments. Our results show that the molecule is more efficiently produced at low cell growth rate and in the presence of amino acids in the medium but is negatively iron-regulated. Other abiotic factors, such as low oxygen concentration or low pH do not have drastic effects on NABD biosynthesis by the strain. Globally, with regard to specific conditions that the strain undergoes in the rhizosphere environment, it supposes that the nutritional/physiological state of BTP1 cells growing on plant roots is compatible with an effective production of the elicitor. Plant responses induced following root treatment with Bacillus subtilis S499 have also been investigated. Working on whole plants, it first revealed an increase in enzyme activities of the oxylipin pathway (lipoxygenase (LOX) and lipid-hydroperoxydase) after infection. Further investigations were conducted on cultured tobacco cells and we have shown the induction of some early events, such as extracellular pH alkalinization, reactive oxygen species production, defence enzyme stimulation (LOX and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), and accumulation of some phenolics from the phenylpropanoid pathway. These experimentations performed with Bacillus lipopeptides are the first conducted with ISR-specific elicitors and led to the characterization of early events that can also be triggered by pathogen associated molecules. It is still not clear whether bacterial LPs are recognized by plant cells via specific receptors but the amphiphilic and detergent properties of surfactin strongly suggest that these LPs can interact via a less specific mechanism based on some limited destabilization of the membrane structure. In conclusion, NABD and lipopeptides studied in this thesis enlarge the range of elicitors from non pathogenic bacteria isolated to date, and may be considered as members of a new class of ISR-inducing compounds of amphiphilic nature./ Lors du phénomène appelé « résistance systémique induite » (ISR), des rhizobactéries non pathogènes peuvent conférer à la plante un certain degré de protection à des attaques ultérieures par un phytopathogène via la stimulation de mécanismes de défense systémiques. Cette « immunité » sinitie suite à la perception par la plante de molécules dites élicitrices produites par le microorganisme bénéfique. Lobjectif de cette thèse est de contribuer à la caractérisation de ce dialogue moléculaire en se basant sur des études antérieures poursuivies au laboratoire qui ont mis en évidence la capacité des souches Pseudomonas putida BTP1 et Bacillus subtilis S499 (aussi dénommée M4) à induire lISR chez leur hôte végétal. La première partie des recherches sur BTP1 a permis disoler en tant quéliciteur un nouveau type de composé produit par les Pseudomonas. Cet éliciteur a été isolé à partir de surnageant de culture de la bactérie et est constitué dun noyau benzylamine dont lazote est alkylé par deux groupements méthyle et un groupement tétradécyle, responsables de lhydrophobicité relative de la molécule. Sur cette base, ce métabolite a été dénommé NABD (N-alkylated benzylamine derivative). Grâce au traitement des plantes avec le composé purifié ou via lutilisation de mutants altérés dans sa production, nous avons démontré que le NABD était responsable de lessentiel de lactivité ISR de BTP1 sur le haricot et le concombre. Dans le cas de la tomate par contre, il semble quil ne soit pas le seul éliciteur impliqué. En ce qui concerne Bacillus subtilis S499, en utilisant des approches similaires, nous avons pour la première fois montré limplication de deux lipopeptides, la surfactine et la fengycine, comme agents stimulateurs de lISR, permettant ainsi de leur attribuer un nouveau rôle dans le contrôle biologique des maladies des plantes par Bacillus. Une étude de la relation structure/activité a été entamée et a révélé un rôle du noyau aromatique dans létablissement de la résistance systémique par le NABD. Pour la surfactine, limportance de la longueur de la chaîne alkylée ainsi que la présence des charges sur les acides aminés suggèrent que son activité élicitrice soit liée à ses propriétés amphiphiles. La détection en quantités significatives des deux types déliciteurs dans la rhizosphère des plants traités par les bactéries est également en faveur de leur rôle biologique. Dans le cas de BTP1, nous avons étudié linfluence de certains paramètres physiologiques, nutritionnels et physico-chimiques sur la production du NABD. Les résultats montrent que la production du NABD est dépendante de la présence dacides aminés dans le milieu, quelle est effective à un taux de croissance faible du microorganisme, quelle est négativement influencée par le fer mais quelle nest pas inhibée par une restriction en oxygène dissous disponible ou par une acidification du milieu. Globalement, ces données suggèrent que les conditions physico-chimiques dictant létat physiologique des cellules bactériennes in situ peuvent être propices à une synthèse effective de léliciteur au niveau des racines. Des recherches sur les réponses induites chez lhôte lors de son interaction avec S499 ont été initiées et montrent une nette augmentation dactivités enzymatiques de la voie des oxylipines (activités lipoxygénase (LOX) et lipide hydroperoxydase) dans les feuilles après infection. Une exploration plus approfondie sur suspensions de cellules de tabac en culture avec la surfactine a montré linduction de plusieurs autres mécanismes précoces de défenses, comme une alcalinisation du milieu extracellulaire, la production despèces oxydantes, lactivation denzymes de défense telles que LOX et phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), et une possible réorientation de la voie des phénylpropanoïdes. Ces expérimentations menées avec les lipopeptides de Bacillus sont parmi les premières à être réalisées avec des éliciteurs spécifiques de lISR. Elles ont abouti à la caractérisation de plusieurs réponses précoces dont certaines sont aussi induites par des molécules isolées dagents pathogènes. Les lipopeptides pourraient ainsi agir en stressant les cellules de lhôte via une perturbation temporaire de la membrane externe facilitée par leur propriété amphiphile. Limplication de récepteurs dans la reconnaissance des éliciteurs de BTP1 et S499 ne peut cependant pas être exclue. En conclusion, les lipopeptides et le NABD élargissent la gamme des éliciteurs bactériens de lISR isolés jusquà présent et peuvent être considérés comme appartenant à une nouvelle classe dimmuno-stimulateurs des plantes comprenant des molécules amphiphiles.

Herbivory can have many effects on plant fitness, including altering plant-pollinator interactions and sexual reproduction in angiosperms. Pollinator-mediated interactions may be impacted when herbivores alter plant traits, such as floral display size, that can influence pollinator visitation rates, and, ultimately, the reproductive component of plant fitness. Here I describe an investigation into the indirect effects of feeding by beetles released as a biological control agent, Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla, on plant-pollinator interactions and reproductive output in the invasive plant Lythrum salicaria L. (purple loosestrife). During the summer of 2011, three treatments (low, ambient and mechanical herbivory) were applied to 105 plants during the pre-flowering period of growth. At the onset of flowering, a series of pollinator observations were conducted over the course of approximately 1.5 weeks. Several aspects of floral display were affected by the herbivory treatments, including increased inflorescence and flower production in the ambient and mechanical herbivory treatments, relative to the low herbivory treatment. Treatment type did not have a significant effect on the number of pollinator foraging bouts, but had marginally significant effects on the number of flowers probed per pollinator foraging bout and per 30-minutes. Moreover, treatment had a significant effect on the number of switches among the inflorescences on a single plant. I discuss the possibility that the differences in pollinator visitation were mediated by differences in the architecture and the size of floral display. There were no detectable differences in fruit or seed production (i.e., female fitness) among treatments. However, as I discuss, differences in pollinator visitation may affect other unmeasured aspects of fitness, such as the level of inbreeding or the number of seeds sired through male function.

Pergamasus quisquiliarum Canestini is a polyphagous predatory mite that has been shown to feed on the economically important arthropod, Scutigerella immaculata Newport (Symphyla: Scutigerellidae), Collembola, Diptera larvae, Enchytraeid worms, and miscellaneous other soil organisms. This study examined the feeding behavior of P. quisquiliarum, the effects of cover cropping and tillage practices on P. quisquiliarum populations, the biology and ecology of P. quisquiliarum in agricultural and non-agricultural sites, and the seasonal dynamics of P. quisquiliarum. The interaction of cover crop and tillage treatment was statistically significant for P. quisquiliarum populations (P<0.001). Tillage treatment was the primary factor for P. quisquiliarum populations, as very low densities of P. quisquiliarum were recovered from green manure plots, regardless of the cover crop treatment. Among no-till plots, Monida oats had the greatest densities of P. quisquiliarum, while control (fallow) and white mustard plots had the lowest densities. The two non-agricultural sites had higher densities of P. quisquiliarum than the agricultural site. Among the non-agricultural sites, P. quisquiliarum density was higher in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco) litter than in Oregon white oak litter (Quercus garryana Dougl.), suggesting that the nature of the chemical and physical micro-environment was more suitable under Douglas-fir trees. In all sites, P. quisquiliarum attained it's greatest density in August, with a second peak in October. Minimum P. quisquiliarum densities were observed in January and February. Seasonal P. quisquiliarum densities were significantly synchronized with seasonal dynamics of it's prey items. / Graduation date: 1998

Phytophthora vignae, causal agent of stem and root rot of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), was reported for the first time in Sri Lanka. The pathogen was found in cowpea field soils from 3 of 5 geographic regions sampled. Only one site however, had plants exhibiting disease symptoms. Of the eight cowpea varieties grown in Sri Lanka, four were shown to be relatively resistant; all other legumes inoculated were completely resistant. Two morphologic and physiologic races of P. vignae were identified among the 24 isolates recovered, based on differential pathogenicity on cowpea varieties. Bacteria isolated from field soils, and other known bacterial biocontrol agents, inhibited P. vignae in culture, but only three Sri Lankan isolates considerably suppressed the disease in greenhouse tests. Volatile substances produced by most bacteria inhibited mycelial growth and sporangial production by P. vignae. The increased pH of the exposed medium suggested the involvement of ammonia. Volatile inhibitors were produced by these bacteria in soil, but only with added substrate; Strain DF-3101 also reduced oospore germination in soil. Cowpea plants inoculated with the VA mycorrhizal (VAM) fungus Glomus intraradices in P. vignae-infested soil were larger than non-mycorrhizal plants, but only at low levels of the pathogen. VAM colonization was reduced at high levels of the pathogen, and root infection by the pathogen was reduced by VAM. The fungicides metalaxyl, fosetyl-Al, Banrot, and Manzate-200DF reduced in vitro mycelial growth, but at different concentrations. Sporangia formation and germination, and oogonia formation by P. vignae, was reduced significantly by metalaxyl and fosetyl-Al. In greenhouse tests, metalaxyl, even at low concentrations, reduced disease; Fosetyl-Al was effective at high concentrations; Manzate-200DF was effective as a soil drench but not as a foliar spray; Banrot effectively reduced disease at 50 mg a.i./L. Exposure of a bacterial biocontrol agent to these fungicides in vitro did not affect its capacity to subsequently produce volatile inhibitors, but exposure to 10 ug/ml of metalaxyl and 50 ug/ml of Manzate-200DF reduced its capacity to subsequently inhibit mycelial growth of P. vignae. / Graduation date: 1991

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