Zoo chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are restricted in their choice of social and physical environments. This allows for a strong test of environmental predictors of happiness including the chimpanzee-environment fit and the degree of relatedness between a chimpanzee and its enclosure mates. The interrelatedness of zoo chimpanzees permit the study of genetic and environmental contributions to Dominance and subjective well-being (SWB) and their common genetic or environmental causes. Demographic predictors such as age and sex and environmental predictors such as density of males and females, density of male and female kin, and how similar in personality a chimpanzee was to other chimpanzees in its enclosure were tested first. A series of two-, three-, and four-way interactions was also tested. First, the effects of these predictors on Dominance were tested. Next, these effects were tested on SWB after the variance SWB shared with Dominance was removed. Eight behavioral genetic models were then tested. These models incorporated genetic and environmental variance and covariance components and any significant predictors that were discovered in the previous environmental analysis. The relationship between age and Dominance was positive and stronger for males than females. The relationship between age and SWB was negative. The genetic model that had the best fit and most parsimony included additive genetic effects and non-shared environmental effects for Dominance and SWB. Zoo effects were negligible. Finally, the genetic correlation between Dominance and SWB was almost entirely due to shared genes. These findings are consistent with a model positing that Dominance and SWB arise from a common temperament and are differentiated by nonshared environmental influences. They suggest that happiness in apes and humans may be a sexually selected fitness indicator.

This study combined an intensive site-specific inventory of the spider family Salticidae with an extensive taxonomic review of a subset of the family throughout the Neotropics. This collection of over 8,000 adult salticids from lowland rainforest in Costa Rica's La Selva Biological Station yielded 103 species from 50 genera. At least one genus and ten to fifty percent of these species are new to science. Natural history and range information is presented for the sixteen most abundant species in understory and canopy fogging samples. Species richness estimators predict that quantitative understory sampling captured 88% to 98% of the species accessible to our methods during the survey period. We use this unusually comprehensive empirical dataset to evaluate performance of six parametric and seven nonparametric species richness estimators. Among parametric curve-fitting models, Soberon and Llorente's log model provides the best fit, least bias, and most accurate results at most sample sizes. Of nonparametric estimators, Chao1 and Chao2 most quickly reduce the negative bias all show at small sample sizes. Stratifying sampling by method, habitat, and site improved richness estimation by enabling us to diagnose edges of our target community and its partitions by identifying "leakage" of rare species from other partitions in which these species were common. Stratified sampling also revealed differences in subfamily-level faunal composition across partitions and exposed hints of elaborate niche partitioning among taxa, particularly within the speciose genus Corythalia. This taxonomic revision of the Neotropical genera Cobanus F. O. Pickard-Cambridge 1901 and Sidusa, Peckham and Peckham 1896 shows them to be closely related to one another and almost doubles the size of each. Twenty-four species are newly described here, twelve re-described, three synonymized, two transferred to other genera, and several recognized as being misplaced. This paper provides character matrices for specimen identification and summarizes known distribution and natural history information for all species of Cobanus and Sidusa. Phylogenetic analysis of morphological characters in these species and members of thirty other euophryine genera supports the sister relationship and mutual monophyly of Cobanus and Sidusa, and provides insight into character variation and higher-level relationships within the subfamily Euophryinae.

Across species, glial cells in both peripheral and central nervous systems cooperate extensively with neurons to shape multiple aspects of neural development. In vertebrate and invertebrate olfactory systems, neuron-glia interactions are thought to underlie critical developmental events, including glomerulus formation, and the growth, sorting, and targeting of olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) axons. The olfactory system of the moth Manduca sexta has many similarities to vertebrate olfactory systems, and has been used extensively to explore intercellular interactions involved in the formation of the olfactory pathway. In particular, glial reduction experiments have implicated two types of central olfactory glia, the sorting zone and neuropil-associated glia, in axon sorting and glomerulus stabilization. The developmental roles of a third glial cell type, the antennal nerve glia, remain elusive, yet their peripheral origin and association with ORN axons are similar to mammalian olfactory ensheathing cells. The present body of work uses a defined co-culture system to characterize interactions between ORN axons growing from explants of olfactory receptor epithelium and glial cells from the primary olfactory system of Manduca. We have monitored how particular types of glia, known to influence the behavior of ORN axons in vivo, directly affect the behavior and morphology of individual ORN growth cones in vitro. Time-lapse imaging of neuron-glia cultures revealed that olfactory receptor growth cones elaborate extensively and cease advancement following contact with sorting zone and neuropil-associated glial cells. In contrast, growth cones advance along the surfaces of antennal nerve glial cells without prolonged changes in morphology. Cytoskeletal staining of fixed preparations reinforced live-cell findings, as contact with sorting zone and neuropil-associated glial cells caused statistically significant changes in growth cone morphology. Finally, ORN axons induce antennal nerve glia, but not sorting zone or neuropil glia, to form multicellular arrays through proliferation and process extension. These findings have led to the formation of hypotheses concerning the nature of neuron-glia interactions in vivo.

Two semi-free ranging groups of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were observed over a nine month period on Morgan Island, South Carolina. The purpose of this study was to determine if the presence of males, rather than overall increased activity during the breeding and birthing seasons, resulted in higher rates of female-female aggression. This study was a test of the Hera Hypothesis: a model developed by the author in 1991 that predicted the existence of female intra-sexual competition. Repeated measures of affiliative behaviors and physical and non-physical aggression between subject and target monkeys were recorded and associated with the presence or absence of a male. Aggressive behavior was hypothesized to be a measure of female competition over mates, an arena mainly considered to be the domain of males alone. This study demonstrates that female rhesus monkeys do not aggress against each other more intensely when in the presence of a potential mate. In light of this I can only conclude that female rhesus monkeys do not use aggression as a means of competition over access to mates.

This dissertation reports on a study conducted to examine the morphological, behavioral, and environmental sources of variation in the structure of house cricket, Acheta domesticus, calling song. Song variations may be important in female mating decisions and influence male mating success. Eleven song parameters were measured: chirp duration, interchirp duration, syllable number, syllable duration, intersyllable duration, mean frequency, frequency intensity, minimum frequency, maximum frequency, syllable intensity, and intensity difference between syllable and frequency intensity. Morphological factors examined included body: mass, length, color, asymmetry, intactness; and male age. Behavioral factors were timing of song bouts and proclivity to sing. Environmental conditions of high population densities were simulated by temporarily placing males into an arena with three other males. The calling song structure of tactilely isolated males resulted in three factors: frequency (mean, minimum, and maximum frequencies); intensity (syllable intensity, and intensity difference); and variability (difference between syllable intensity and frequency intensity). Males with high body intactness sang at lower frequencies. Asymmetrical males sang more intense songs. Large males sang with more intensity and frequency variability. Intermale competitions resulted in distinguishable linear dominance hierarchies. Lower-ranking males sang less often than higher-ranking males, altered singing times, and sang quieter songs. Intermale competition resulted in males altering song structure. Analysis of post-competitive songs resulted in three factors: frequency (mean and maximum frequencies, and intensity difference); energy (duty-cycle, intensity, and minimum frequency) and variability (unchanged). Higher-ranking asymmetrical males sang at lower frequencies. Higher-ranking males sang with greater energy, and timed their singing to female receptive times. Higher-ranking, large, intact males sang with less variability. This study indicated that A. domesticus males signal phenotypic information via their calling song characteristics. More specifically, in low population densities males signal information concerning their fitness-related qualities. After having established dominance orders, the male signal information concerning their rank in conjunction with fitness. The implications of this study were that intermale competition altered the song cues available to the females and may alter female mating decisions.

Distinguishing marine and freshwater animals in the fossil record is a long-standing problem in paleontology. The physiological tolerances of extinct animals usually are inferred from environmental indicators and/or on the physiology of nearest living relatives. These types of evidence are often ambiguous and may be confounded by factors such as post-mortem transport and polymorphism in the living relatives. A solution to this problem is to combine these types of data with analyses of the oxygen isotope compositions of the phosphate (δ¹⁸O(p)) and the carbon isotope compositions of the carbonate (δ¹³C(sc)) of teeth and bones, to determine whether the ingested water and diet, respectively, were fresh or marine. The power of this approach is illustrated here in a study of the early evolution of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). Changes in δ¹⁸O(p) and δ¹³C(sc) of the teeth and bones of early cetaceans documented here indicate that fully marine cetaceans existed by the middle Eocene and that some species exploited both marine and freshwater environments. This isotopic approach requires the avoidance of isotopically altered specimens. For this reason, the second component of this work deals with criteria for recognizing isotopically altered fossils. In contrast to one recent study, I found a positive correlation between δ¹⁸O(p) and δ¹⁸O(sc) not only in mammals but also in fish and reptiles. This correlation can be used as a test of whether the original isotopic composition is preserved in fossil specimens. Another approach to this problem is to make analyses of samples taken along growth transect of a fossil tooth or bone. Growth-transect analyses could resolve whether within-species isotopic variation represents differences in preservation or ontogenetic shifts in diet or habitat. In support of this goal, a new method for the analysis of phosphate oxygen is presented. This new method differs from all previous methods in that it involves no chemical reaction, but rather high-temperature (>725°C) equilibrium oxygen isotope exchange between CO₂ and Ag₃PO₄ As the amount of CO₂ is controlled by the analyst, small phosphate samples may be analyzed, making this method potentially useful for growth-transect analyses.

These studies were conducted to determine the chemical identity of heparin binding proteins in semen that are related to fertility of bulls. The first study describes the isolation and identification of a 31,000 dalton fertility-associated antigen (FAA). FAA was found to have significant primary structure homology to a recently described novel DNase I-like protein. The physiological significance of the similarities between FAA and a protein homologous to DNase I is unknown at this time as no function has been described for the DNase I-like protein. The second study describes the isolation and identification of a 24,000 dalton seminal heparin binding protein. It was found to be similar, if not identical, to tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2). TIMP-2 regulates matrix metalloprotease activity and therefore, potentially plays a key role in the structural makeup of the extracellular matrix. These findings suggest that regulation of enzymatic activity in seminal fluid is in large part a function of heparin binding proteins that have been correlated to fertility of bulls, one being a potentially novel extracellular nuclease and a second acting as a specific inhibitor of metalloprotease activity. In addition to the ability to modulate capacitation of sperm, seminal heparin binding proteins likely are key players in protecting sperm and male reproductive tract tissues from enzymatic hydrolysis. The proteins identified in this dissertation represent novel additions to the previously described seminal heparin binding protein families. Clearly, these data indicate a growing complexity of seminal fluid and implicate a novel Dnase I-like protein and TIMP-2 in affecting cellular events related to fertility potential of males.

This dissertation is a report of neuroethological investigations of the vocal and cognitive behavior of the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Budgerigars were trained, via an interactive modeling technique, to reproduce English words and phrases. Budgerigars' abilities to use their acquired English vocalizations were then assessed. Budgerigars produced English vocalizations in three main ways: (1) enmeshed in warble song; (2) in response to presented objects; and (3) alone, neither enmeshed in warble song nor in response to presented objects. Budgerigars also formed functional categories of their English vocalizations and used them in a context-dependent manner. Budgerigars' English vocalizations and contact calls were subjected to acoustic analyses and found to contain nonlinear amplitude modulation. A comparison with the sounds produced by humans and other speech-producing birds (Grey parrots, Psittacus erithacus, and mynahs, Gracula religiosa) revealed that budgerigars produce speech in a fundamentally different manner. Ibotenic acid lesions were placed in the vocal control nucleus, NLc, and the effects on budgerigars' contact calls and English vocalizations assessed. NLc lesions affected production of, but not memory for, budgerigar vocalizations. Specifically, the amplitude of the carrier signal of amplitude- modulated vocalizations was disrupted. No abnormalities were detected in the frequencies that budgerigars produced post-lesion. The implications of these findings regarding the presence of amplitude modulation and the effects of NLc lesions with respect to past and future studies of the acoustic, physical and neural mechanisms underlying budgerigar vocal production are discussed, and a working model for the function of the budgerigar syrinx presented.

<p> While range-wide population declines have prompted extensive research on greater sage-grouse (<i>Centrocercus urophasianus</i>), basic information about southern periphery populations, such as the Bald Hills population in southern Utah, has not been documented. The objective of this research was to determine habitat preferences and space use patterns of the Bald Hills sage-grouse population which occurs in an area of high potential for renewable energy development. I tracked 66 birds via VHF telemetry in 2011 and 2012 and surveyed vegetation plots throughout the study area. I found that the population was primarily one-stage migratory with seasonal distributions that did not correspond well with previously developed suitable habitat maps (based on local biologist knowledge and lek data) for all seasons; I also found that mean home range sizes ranged from 82 km² to 157 km².</p><p> Nesting hens did not select for any measured vegetation characteristics within the study area, while brood-rearing hens selected for high forb cover. Birds at summer sites (non-reproductive bird locations during the summer season) selected for greater grass and forb cover and lower shrub cover compared with random sites. Overall, Bald Hills sage-grouse used areas with greater shrub canopy cover and lower grass and forb cover than recommended in habitat guidelines. </p><p> Ten predictor variables were used to model suitable seasonal habitat using Maximum Entropy (maxent). All models were created for the Bald Hills population and projected to the Bureau of Land Management Cedar City Field Office management area and produced excellent model fit (AUC > 0.900). The Bald Hills population had similar nesting and winter habitat preferences as other populations but different brood-rearing and summer habitat preferences. I found local management techniques to be an important driver of seasonal habitat selection; birds selected for areas that had undergone habitat treatments (such as broadcast burn and crushing) within the previous 10 years. My results indicated the Bald Hills periphery population occupies marginal habitat and has adapted unique seasonal habitat preferences. Managers of isolated, fringe, and low-density populations should develop locally specific management guidelines to address the unique adaptations and ensure the persistence of these populations. </p>

<p> Snowshoe hare (<i>Lepus americanus</i>) survival depends on the interaction of habitat characteristics with numerous biological and environmental variables. In boreal regions where considerable habitat heterogeneity exists, hares balance food availability with predation risk by moving among habitats seasonally, but it is largely unknown how often they move at shorter time scales. I investigated the seasonal effects of habitat, weather, and individual hare characteristics on survival and movement in two common but fundamentally different boreal habitats. Survival was highest in summer, for hares with higher body condition, and in black spruce rather than early successional forest. Hares moved among core use areas in different habitats twice per day on average, using more open areas at night when they were presumably feeding on preferred browse. Movement rates were lowest in mid-afternoon when hares appeared to be resting under dense cover. Behavior of individuals varied greatly with some hares repeatedly moving up to 1 km between defined patches in less than 5 hours and others remaining roughly within a 1 ha area. These findings illustrate the complexity of snowshoe hare ecology in an area where habitat variation promotes daily movement of hares among radically different habitats over a few hundred meters.</p>