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Patterns of vegetation use by black bears (Ursus americanus) on Long Island, Washington were documented using radio-telemetry in 1973-74 and 1980-81. Secondary succession altered the vegetative compostion of clearcut areas through this time, reducing the areas dominated by productive brush species by nearly 50%. Seasonal food habits, consisted primarily of grasses and forbs in spring (den emergence-May) and flowers and fruits of shrub species in summer (June-September) and fall (October-den entrance). Bears selected for clearcuts (5-21 years of age) over all other vegetation types for feeding but preferred areas dominated by large trees when inactive during both the day and night. Inactivity in clearcut areas occurred most frequently in clearcuts offering the greatest amount of horizontal cover. Although preferred in all seasons, clearcuts received the greatest use during the summer months when flowers and fruits of shrubs species were most abundant. Tidelands and meadows were used more in the spring than during other seasons and conifer stands received the greatest proportionate use in spring and fall. Old growth timber (200 +years of age) was used similarly to mature second growth. Adult males were less influenced than other classes of bears by availability of horizontal cover and proximity of cover provided by adjacent vegetation types when feeding in clearcut areas. Adult females with cubs fed in timber stands and clearcuts with abundant horizontal cover more than other bears and generally remained in close proximity to bordering timber stands when feeding in clearcuts. Subadults, as well as adult females with cubs, appeared to use available habitats in a manner that allowed them to avoid other bears. Areas in large timber stands that were long distances from clearcuts were used by bears more during the 1980-81 phase of the study, apparently because of the increased competition for declining resources in clearcut areas. Home ranges of the adult females present during both phases of the study were similar in both size and location.

Effort and success of Virginia's bear houndsmen were determined through field and mail surveys, and hunter diaries. The number of houndsmen per chase ranged from 5 to 12, hounds ranged from 6 to 11, and each chase lasted 2 to 6 hours. Second chases of the day lasted 2 to 3 hours and 3 to 10 hounds were used. Fifty-three to 74% of all first attempts resulted in a chase and 24% to 44% of these bears treed. A 2nd chase occurred in 11% to 96% of attempts and 9% to 50% of bears treed. Five to 17% of the 1st bears and 13% to 21% of 2nd bears were harvested. Field surveys found virtually no differences in hunting effort or success between seasons, study areas, and years. The hunter diary appears to be the most reliable means of sampling hunter effort and success. The applicability of Schroeder's physical condition estimate (PCR) was tested on data from Maine's black bear population. Bears exposed to poor hard mast had lower PCR's than bears exposed to good hard mast (P = 0.009). PCR and body weights of adult female black bears in Virginia exposed to hunting did not differ from those not hunted (P = 0.09). Annual adult female, adult male, and cub survival and reproductive rates in the hunted population were numerically similar to those in the non hunted populations. Five radio collared females were experimentally chased by hounds. The chases,on average, lasted 0.9 hours and 43% of bears treed. The average total home range for 3 of the bears was 17.8 km². The area used by 2 of the 3 bears pursued by hounds did not differ from their total home range (P 3 0.05) based on the MRPP test. The area covered by 3 of the 5 pursued bears was 5.6%, 11.8%, and 79.7% of their home range. / Master of Science

What kind of animal was a black bear? Were black bears primarily pests, pets, furbearers or game animals? Farmers, conservationists, tourists, trappers, and hunters in early twentieth-century Ontario could not agree. Even as the century progressed, ideas about bears remained twisted and there was often very little consensus about what the animal represented. These varying perceptions complicated the efforts of the provincial Department of Game and Fisheries and its successor agencies, the Department of Lands and Forests and the Ministry of Natural Resources, to develop coherent bear management policies. Perceptions about black bears often conflicted and competed with one another and at no one time did they have a single meaning in Ontario. The image of Ontario’s black bears has been continuously negotiated as human values, attitudes, and policies have changed over time. As a result, because of various and often competing perspectives, the province’s bear management program, for most of the twentieth century, was very loose and haphazard because the animal had never been uniformly defined or valued. Examining the history of these ambiguous viewpoints towards the black bear in Ontario provides us with a snapshot of how culture intersects with our natural resources and may pose challenges for management. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

We measured black bear (Ursus americanus) reproduction and cub survival during 1994 - 1998, and 1995 - 1999, respectively, in the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests in Virginia to determine age-specific and overall cub production and cub survival. We observed females in estrus between 6 June and 22 August; the mean date of estrus was 17 July. Ages of primiparity ranged between 3 and 5 years with an average of 3.36 years (n=11, SE=0.15). Average litter size for 1995 - 1998 was 2.32 cubs/litter (SE=0.11, n=53) and 85.7% of available females ≥ age 4 (those not accompanied by cubs) reproduced in a given den season. We monitored 98 (48M:50F) black bear cubs equipped with expandable radio-collars (Higgins 1997) or radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously between 1995 and 1999 to estimate cub survival. Kaplan-Meier staggered entry analysis provided 306-day survival rates for 82 cubs. The survival estimates for males and females were 73% (0.49, 0.96) and 91% (0.80, 1.00), respectively. The overall 306-day survival rate for all cubs was 81% (0.67,0.94) using Kaplan-Meier and 76% (0.63, 0.92) using Heisey-Fuller (Mayfield) methods. We also evaluated the utility of radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously in 42 (21M:21F) wild black bear (Ursus americanus) cubs from 2 study areas in Virginia between 1996 and 1999 to monitor first year cub survival. More than 64% (27 of 42) of the implants fell out prematurely (2-198 days), and 16.6% (7 of 42) failed for unknown reasons. Less than 5% (2 of 42) of these cubs denned wearing failed implants, and 9.5% (4 of 42) experienced mortality less than 1 month after implant surgery. About 9.5% (4 of 42) of implanted black bear cubs wore working transmitters through to the following den season. / Master of Science

Monitoring of wildlife populations is critical to conservation and public health and provides crucial information necessary for effective decision-making and management. Effective wildlife monitoring requires effective and adaptable sampling methods that consider the researchers as well as species being monitored. This thesis assesses non-invasive sampling methods to 1) detect cryptic shrew species, and 2) identify bacteria of public health concern present in American black bear (Ursus americanus) fecal matter. Results from Chapter 2 demonstrate the potential for monitoring rare and sparsely distributed small mammals using soil sourced environmental DNA with targeted sampling (e.g., cover objects for shrews). Chapter 3 demonstrates fecal indicator bacteria harboring antimicrobial resistant genes of public health concern can be tracked in the shared human-wildlife environment using non-invasively sourced wildlife fecal samples. This study contributes to future monitoring efforts needed to detect other rare species and identify members of the resistome using non-invasive methods

Understanding energetic potential of habitat patches is important for management designed to provide adequate habitat for wildlife species. Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) has a high density of black bears that have been studied intensively from 1968-1997; habitats within the Park are relatively undisturbed, and similar vegetative cover types can be found throughout the southern Appalachian mountains. Black bear reproduction in the Park has been correlated to hard mast production, however little work has been done to assess the importance of soft mast. Geographic Information System (GIS) based habitat use models have been developed for bears in the Park, yet the importance of foods in determining habitat selection, and the possibility of sexual habitat segregation due to food availability have not yet been determined. The primary objectives of the study included estimation of the location, timing, and amount of caloric production by 19 important black bear foods and determination of the significance of caloric production by mast type, season, overstory vegetation type, and plant species. Secondary objectives were to test for correlation of bear habitat use with estimated caloric production from mast, and to test for sexual segregation of habitats based on caloric production. This study was limited to the northwest quadrant of GSMNP during 1995.

Understanding energetic potential of habitat patches is important for management designed to provide adequate habitat for wildlife species. Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) has a high density of black bears that have been studied intensively from 1968-1997; habitats within the Park are relatively undisturbed, and similar vegetative cover types can be found throughout the southern Appalachian mountains. Black bear reproduction in the Park has been correlated to hard mast production, however little work has been done to assess the importance of soft mast. Geographic Information System (GIS) based habitat use models have been developed for bears in the Park, yet the importance of foods in determining habitat selection, and the possibility of sexual habitat segregation due to food availability have not yet been determined. The primary objectives of the study included estimation of the location, timing, and amount of caloric production by 19 important black bear foods and determination of the significance of caloric production by mast type, season, overstory vegetation type, and plant species. Secondary objectives were to test for correlation of bear habitat use with estimated caloric production from mast, and to test for sexual segregation of habitats based on caloric production. This study was limited to the northwest quadrant of GSMNP during 1995.

Because American black bears (Ursus americanus) are an important game species in Arizona and are endangered in México, an understanding of the population structure, gene flow, and connectivity are important for effective management. Black bears inhabit coniferous and broadleaf deciduous woodlands in southern Arizona and northern México, usually in sky islands (sky islands are mountains that rise from the desert and are isolated from each other). Because a single sky island is too small to support a viable bear population, black bears move through desert lowlands to reach other sky islands. My objective was to assess genetic structure, connectivity, and conservation implications for sky island black bears in southern Arizona and northern México. I addresses 4 components of bear ecology and genetics: a literature review of genetic information available for black bears in North America; the use of 2 mitochondrial DNA genes (Control Region and ATP synthase protein 8) to study the phylogenetic relationship of black bears from the sky islands of southern Arizona and northern México relative to all North America; the use of 10 microsatellite loci to detect the current genetic structure of black bears in the sky islands in Arizona and northern México; and the use of noninvasive samples collected from the field to determine bear density and population size for black bear in Sierra San Luis, Sonora, México. These studies provide information that can be used by biologists, land managers, and others to assist in the conservation of black bears and their habitat.

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