Kentucky, USA, is the site of recent natural recolonization by the American black bear (Ursus americanus); however, bears are rarely observed outside the Cumberland Mountains along the state‘s southeastern border. I examined the influence of roads in constraining the distribution of this population by altering animal space use and movement. I identified patterns of road avoidance and road crossing using data from Global Positioning System collars worn by 28 adult bears (16M, 12F), and described road mortality trends using 27 roadkill events. Bears avoided roads at the home range and landscape scale, primarily crossed low-traffic roads, and crossed in sites that minimized detection by humans. Males displayed more evidence of road avoidance than females, but females crossed roads more selectively than males. Bears were most often killed on high to moderate traffic roads, and in areas less forested than expected. Roadkill and road crossing sites bore different attributes. The results of my study support previous findings that space use near roads and road crossing reflect a tradeoff between the risks of road mortality and human harassment, and the benefits of access to habitat, mates, and anthropogenic food. Road-mediated restriction of black bear space use and movement is indicated.

I assessed genetic variation within and between 18 American black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in the southeastern United States using multilocus DNA fingerprinting techniques (Hinf I restriction digests, Jeffreys’ 33.15 probe). Band-sharing data indicated that American black bear populations (U. a. americanus) exhibit Significantly less genetic similarity both within and between populations (similarity within=0.66, similarity between=0.40) than do the Louisiana (U. a. luteolus) (similarity within=0.75, similarity between=0.58) and Florida (U. a. floridanus) (similarity within=0.75, Similarity between=0.57) black bear populations (p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis test, α=0.05 for multiple comparisons). Louisiana and Florida black bear populations share the same degree of genetic similarity within and between populations, and are more closely related to each other than they are to American black bear populations (p<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis test, α=0.05 for multiple comparisons). I conclude that, based on genetic data, separate subspecies status may or may not be warranted for the Florida and Louisiana black bears; however, both groups of populations should be considered as distinct population segments for listing under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. I also assessed any genetic effects that may have been caused by translocation of bears from Minnesota to Louisiana and Arkansas. Analysis of band-sharing data indicated that any genetic impacts that may have been caused by the translocations were not statistically Significant. The bear population in Cook County, MN exhibits less within-population genetic similarity (similarity within=0.57) than bear populations in Louisiana and Arkansas (Similarities within=0.74). Populations in Louisiana and Arkansas are more closely related to each other (Similarity between=0.53) than they are to the population in Minnesota (similarity between=0.34) (p<0.001, Mann-Whitney test). These findings are in agreement with previous genetic and morphological studies of black bear populations in the southeastern United States. / Master of Science

Historically, black bears occurred throughout Mississippi but by 1932, <12 bears remained. Repatriation in neighboring states and conservation efforts in Mississippi have led to the recolonization of at least 2 subspecies (U. a. luteolus and U. a. americanus) of black bears in the state. I compiled available data to provide a synthesis of the history, current status, and management of black bears in Mississippi. Additionally, I used global positioning data collected from radio collared bears to determine the influence of distance to source population, cover type, distance to roads, distance to water, wetland reserve program areas, and human population density on black bear resource selection at various spatial scales. I studied characteristics of space use and resource selection of recolonizing bears in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley (Delta). I assessed the influence of environmental parameters at the female core annual home-range (using 50% kernel density estimator) and male and female seasonal and annual home-ranges (95% kernel density estimator). Distance to source population and distance to roads had significant influence at the core female home-range scale. I found a sex-based difference in annual and seasonal home-ranges. I also found that bears exhibited response to and selection for specific resources with an affinity toward hardwood stands, particularly young-aged hardwoods. My research illustrates the importance of analyzing resource selection at multiple scales to gain a full understanding of parameters that influence the recolonization of a bear population.

We measured black bear (Ursus americanus) reproduction and cub survival during 1994 - 1998, and 1995 - 1999, respectively, in the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests in Virginia to determine age-specific and overall cub production and cub survival. We observed females in estrus between 6 June and 22 August; the mean date of estrus was 17 July. Ages of primiparity ranged between 3 and 5 years with an average of 3.36 years (n=11, SE=0.15). Average litter size for 1995 - 1998 was 2.32 cubs/litter (SE=0.11, n=53) and 85.7% of available females &ge; age 4 (those not accompanied by cubs) reproduced in a given den season. We monitored 98 (48M:50F) black bear cubs equipped with expandable radio-collars (Higgins 1997) or radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously between 1995 and 1999 to estimate cub survival. Kaplan-Meier staggered entry analysis provided 306-day survival rates for 82 cubs. The survival estimates for males and females were 73% (0.49, 0.96) and 91% (0.80, 1.00), respectively. The overall 306-day survival rate for all cubs was 81% (0.67,0.94) using Kaplan-Meier and 76% (0.63, 0.92) using Heisey-Fuller (Mayfield) methods. We also evaluated the utility of radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously in 42 (21M:21F) wild black bear (Ursus americanus) cubs from 2 study areas in Virginia between 1996 and 1999 to monitor first year cub survival. More than 64% (27 of 42) of the implants fell out prematurely (2-198 days), and 16.6% (7 of 42) failed for unknown reasons. Less than 5% (2 of 42) of these cubs denned wearing failed implants, and 9.5% (4 of 42) experienced mortality less than 1 month after implant surgery. About 9.5% (4 of 42) of implanted black bear cubs wore working transmitters through to the following den season. / Master of Science

The Cooperative Alleghany Bear Study (CABS) was a 10-year study conducted on 2 areas and designed to investigate the ecology of a hunted population of American black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Alleghany Mountains of western Virginia. Over the course of our research, we handled 1,041 individual bears >18 months old and gathered reproductive data from females during 424 bear-winters. My analyses of 183 litters indicate that reproductive rates were high with relatively large litters (mean = 2.49 cubs / litter) and younger (3–4-year-old) females having smaller litters than older (> 5 years old) females. Overall cub sex ratios did not differ from 1M:1F; however, female cubs were over-represented in 4-cub litters. Most cubs were born in January (mean = January 17) and younger females had later parturition dates than older females. Bears on our study areas had relatively early ages at primiparity (mean = 3.8 years old) and few missed reproductive opportunities. Hard mast failure apparently resulted in periodic reproductive failures and subsequent reproductive synchrony, which I tracked using 5 indices. The amplitude of oscillations in reproductive synchrony dampened through time after each synchronizing event. The population contained substantially more females than males; however, males were more vulnerable to trapping than were females. Population size was determined using genetic and photographic capture-recapture estimators. Density estimates were relatively high and approached 1 bear / km2. Annual survival rates were high for cubs (0.87) and females (0.91). For males, annual survival rates were lower, particularly for 1–3-year-olds (0.57). Excluding hunting mortality, natural survival rates were high (0.98) for all >1-year-old bears on our study areas. The results of Leslie Matrix and Program RISKMAN models indicated a growing population. A Leslie Matrix model incorporating the effects of a 5-year-cyle of mast-failure-induced reproductive failure yielded a lambda = 1.13. To reach the objective of 0 population growth prescribed for some areas of Virginia, increased levels of hunting mortality on adult (>3-year-old) females would likely be necessary. / Ph. D.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Despite being separated by millions of years of evolution, black bears (Ursus americanus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos) can be difficult to distinguish based on skeletal and dental material alone. Complicating matters, some Late Pleistocene U. americanus are significantly larger in size than their modern relatives, obscuring the identification of the two bears. In the past, fossil bears have been identified based on differences in dental morphology or size. This study used geometric morphometrics to look at overall differences in cranial shape and used step-wise discriminant analysis to identify specific characters that distinguish cranial morphology between black and brown bears. Such differences could prove important in identifying fossil bears when crania are present but teeth are missing. Furthermore, being able to properly identify U. arctos and U. americanus crania is important in understanding evolutionary and ecological distinctions among both fossil and modern bears. Principal components, discriminant, and thin plate spline analyses indicated a clear morphological separation between the crania of U. americanus and U. arctos and highlighted key identifying features including a more convex forehead and a narrower, more elongate rostrum in U. arctos than U. americanus.

Because of increasing frequency of bear sightings, vehicle collisions, and nuisance incidents in coastal South Carolina, the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources is developing a comprehensive black bear management plan. However, no reliable estimates of population abundance or density are available. I used genotypes of black bears determined from hair samples collected in Lewis Ocean Bay and Carvers Bay to estimate population abundance and density. I obtained hair samples from snares during 8 weekly sampling periods in 2008 and 2009. I used Huggins closed population models to estimate abundance and spatially explicit capture- recapture models to estimate density. Based on model averaging, black bear abundance was 30 (SE = 9.3) on Carvers Bay and 42 (SE = 5.4) on Lewis Ocean Bay. Model-averaged density was 0.037 bears/km2 (SE = 0.003) for Carvers Bay. For Lewis Ocean Bay, population densities were much higher: 0.307 bears/km2 (SE = 0.025). I extrapolated the density estimates to the upper coastal region of South Carolina, using logistic regression to weight density based on similarity of the regional landscape with the 2 study areas. Predicted bear densities were low throughout the coastal region but several areas centered on more productive habitats (e.g., Carolina Bays, pocosin) and public lands (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest, Lewis Ocean Bay) had high densities. I also sampled an area in North Carolina and assessed genetic structure among the 3 areas. Based on heterozygosity, genetic distance, and genetic assignment, I found no evidence of historic or recent barriers to gene exchange among the 3 sampled populations. However, demographic connectivity may be a concern for areas such as Lewis Ocean Bay, which is surrounded by highways and development. If the goal is to maintain current black bear densities in those areas, maintaining connectivity with other habitat areas and mitigating impacts of highways would be important. The regional map of potential black bear density may be useful to identify areas that should be surveyed for occupancy or where additional studies may be conducted (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest).

In 1992, the Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus) was granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Act primarily because of extensive habitat loss and fragmentation. Currently, the Louisiana black bear is restricted to 3 relatively small, disjunct breeding subpopulations located in the Tensas River Basin of northeast Louisiana, the upper Atchafalaya River Basin (ARB) of south-central Louisiana, and coastal Louisiana. The 1995 Recovery Plan mandates research to determine the viability of the remaining subpopulations. I conducted a capture-mark-recapture study during 2007–2009 to estimate population parameters for the ARB bear subpopulation by collecting hair samples (n = 2,977) from 115 barbed-wire hair traps during 8 1-week periods each summer. DNA was extracted from those hair samples and microsatellite genotypes were used to identify individuals. I analyzed encounter histories using the Huggins full heterogeneity estimator in a robust design framework in Program MARK. I compared candidate models incorporating heterogeneity, behavior, and time effects on capture using information-theoretic methods. I directly estimated apparent survival, temporary emigration, probability of capture and recapture, and probability of belonging to 1 of 2 mixtures; population abundance was a derived parameter. Apparent survival was 0.91 (SE = 0.06) and did not vary by gender or year. There was some evidence of temporary emigration for males only (0.10, 95% CI = 0.001–0.900). I modeled capture probabilities with a 2-mixture distribution for both male and females. Overall mean weekly capture probability was 0.12 (SE = 0.03) and 0.25 (SE = 0.04) for males and females, respectively. Recapture rates indicated a positive behavioral response to capture. Model-averaged mean annual abundance was 56 (SE = 4.5, 95% CI = 49–68). I calculated population density using spatially-explicit maximum-likelihood methods; model-averaged density was 0.15 bears/km2 (SE = 0.03). My results updated previous abundance estimates for the ARB bear subpopulation and will be used in a population viability analysis to determine if recovery criteria for the Louisiana black bear have been met.

Because of increasing frequency of bear sightings, vehicle collisions, and nuisance incidents in coastal South Carolina, the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources is developing a comprehensive black bear management plan. However, no reliable estimates of population abundance or density are available. I used genotypes of black bears determined from hair samples collected in Lewis Ocean Bay and Carvers Bay to estimate population abundance and density. I obtained hair samples from snares during 8 weekly sampling periods in 2008 and 2009. I used Huggins closed population models to estimate abundance and spatially explicit capture- recapture models to estimate density. Based on model averaging, black bear abundance was 30 (SE = 9.3) on Carvers Bay and 42 (SE = 5.4) on Lewis Ocean Bay. Model-averaged density was 0.037 bears/km2 (SE = 0.003) for Carvers Bay. For Lewis Ocean Bay, population densities were much higher: 0.307 bears/km2 (SE = 0.025). I extrapolated the density estimates to the upper coastal region of South Carolina, using logistic regression to weight density based on similarity of the regional landscape with the 2 study areas. Predicted bear densities were low throughout the coastal region but several areas centered on more productive habitats (e.g., Carolina Bays, pocosin) and public lands (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest, Lewis Ocean Bay) had high densities. I also sampled an area in North Carolina and assessed genetic structure among the 3 areas. Based on heterozygosity, genetic distance, and genetic assignment, I found no evidence of historic or recent barriers to gene exchange among the 3 sampled populations. However, demographic connectivity may be a concern for areas such as Lewis Ocean Bay, which is surrounded by highways and development. If the goal is to maintain current black bear densities in those areas, maintaining connectivity with other habitat areas and mitigating impacts of highways would be important. The regional map of potential black bear density may be useful to identify areas that should be surveyed for occupancy or where additional studies may be conducted (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest).