The Cooperative Alleghany Bear Study (CABS) was a 10-year study conducted on 2 areas and designed to investigate the ecology of a hunted population of American black bears (Ursus americanus) in the Alleghany Mountains of western Virginia. Over the course of our research, we handled 1,041 individual bears >18 months old and gathered reproductive data from females during 424 bear-winters. My analyses of 183 litters indicate that reproductive rates were high with relatively large litters (mean = 2.49 cubs / litter) and younger (3–4-year-old) females having smaller litters than older (> 5 years old) females. Overall cub sex ratios did not differ from 1M:1F; however, female cubs were over-represented in 4-cub litters. Most cubs were born in January (mean = January 17) and younger females had later parturition dates than older females. Bears on our study areas had relatively early ages at primiparity (mean = 3.8 years old) and few missed reproductive opportunities. Hard mast failure apparently resulted in periodic reproductive failures and subsequent reproductive synchrony, which I tracked using 5 indices. The amplitude of oscillations in reproductive synchrony dampened through time after each synchronizing event. The population contained substantially more females than males; however, males were more vulnerable to trapping than were females. Population size was determined using genetic and photographic capture-recapture estimators. Density estimates were relatively high and approached 1 bear / km2. Annual survival rates were high for cubs (0.87) and females (0.91). For males, annual survival rates were lower, particularly for 1–3-year-olds (0.57). Excluding hunting mortality, natural survival rates were high (0.98) for all >1-year-old bears on our study areas. The results of Leslie Matrix and Program RISKMAN models indicated a growing population. A Leslie Matrix model incorporating the effects of a 5-year-cyle of mast-failure-induced reproductive failure yielded a lambda = 1.13. To reach the objective of 0 population growth prescribed for some areas of Virginia, increased levels of hunting mortality on adult (>3-year-old) females would likely be necessary. / Ph. D.

Because of increasing frequency of bear sightings, vehicle collisions, and nuisance incidents in coastal South Carolina, the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources is developing a comprehensive black bear management plan. However, no reliable estimates of population abundance or density are available. I used genotypes of black bears determined from hair samples collected in Lewis Ocean Bay and Carvers Bay to estimate population abundance and density. I obtained hair samples from snares during 8 weekly sampling periods in 2008 and 2009. I used Huggins closed population models to estimate abundance and spatially explicit capture- recapture models to estimate density. Based on model averaging, black bear abundance was 30 (SE = 9.3) on Carvers Bay and 42 (SE = 5.4) on Lewis Ocean Bay. Model-averaged density was 0.037 bears/km2 (SE = 0.003) for Carvers Bay. For Lewis Ocean Bay, population densities were much higher: 0.307 bears/km2 (SE = 0.025). I extrapolated the density estimates to the upper coastal region of South Carolina, using logistic regression to weight density based on similarity of the regional landscape with the 2 study areas. Predicted bear densities were low throughout the coastal region but several areas centered on more productive habitats (e.g., Carolina Bays, pocosin) and public lands (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest, Lewis Ocean Bay) had high densities. I also sampled an area in North Carolina and assessed genetic structure among the 3 areas. Based on heterozygosity, genetic distance, and genetic assignment, I found no evidence of historic or recent barriers to gene exchange among the 3 sampled populations. However, demographic connectivity may be a concern for areas such as Lewis Ocean Bay, which is surrounded by highways and development. If the goal is to maintain current black bear densities in those areas, maintaining connectivity with other habitat areas and mitigating impacts of highways would be important. The regional map of potential black bear density may be useful to identify areas that should be surveyed for occupancy or where additional studies may be conducted (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest).

Because of increasing frequency of bear sightings, vehicle collisions, and nuisance incidents in coastal South Carolina, the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources is developing a comprehensive black bear management plan. However, no reliable estimates of population abundance or density are available. I used genotypes of black bears determined from hair samples collected in Lewis Ocean Bay and Carvers Bay to estimate population abundance and density. I obtained hair samples from snares during 8 weekly sampling periods in 2008 and 2009. I used Huggins closed population models to estimate abundance and spatially explicit capture- recapture models to estimate density. Based on model averaging, black bear abundance was 30 (SE = 9.3) on Carvers Bay and 42 (SE = 5.4) on Lewis Ocean Bay. Model-averaged density was 0.037 bears/km2 (SE = 0.003) for Carvers Bay. For Lewis Ocean Bay, population densities were much higher: 0.307 bears/km2 (SE = 0.025). I extrapolated the density estimates to the upper coastal region of South Carolina, using logistic regression to weight density based on similarity of the regional landscape with the 2 study areas. Predicted bear densities were low throughout the coastal region but several areas centered on more productive habitats (e.g., Carolina Bays, pocosin) and public lands (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest, Lewis Ocean Bay) had high densities. I also sampled an area in North Carolina and assessed genetic structure among the 3 areas. Based on heterozygosity, genetic distance, and genetic assignment, I found no evidence of historic or recent barriers to gene exchange among the 3 sampled populations. However, demographic connectivity may be a concern for areas such as Lewis Ocean Bay, which is surrounded by highways and development. If the goal is to maintain current black bear densities in those areas, maintaining connectivity with other habitat areas and mitigating impacts of highways would be important. The regional map of potential black bear density may be useful to identify areas that should be surveyed for occupancy or where additional studies may be conducted (e.g., Francis Marion National Forest).

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) expressed the need to develop appropriate management strategies for apparently high-density, growing black bear populations in the Roanoke-Neuse-Tar-Cape Fear ecosystem in coastal North Carolina and Virginia. In order to provide the scientific information necessary to develop these strategies, I investigated population densities and genetic structure of black bears at 3 national wildlife refuges [Great Dismal Swamp (GDSNWR), Pocosin Lakes (PLNWR), and Alligator River (ARNWR)]. Density estimates were derived from DNA samples collected noninvasively at each of the 3 refuges for 2 consecutive summers. Hair samples were analyzed for individual identification using 6-7 microsatellite markers. Estimated densities were some of the highest reported in the literature and ranged from 0.56-0.63 bears/km2 at GDSNWR to 0.65-1.12 bears/km2 at ARNWR to 1.23-1.66 bears/km2 at PLNWR. Sex ratios were male-biased in all areas of all refuges. Genetic variability and structure of bears at these refuges was assessed using 16 microsatellite markers for 40 bears from each refuge. Genetic variability of the 3 refuge populations was substantially high compared to other bear populations in North America, with observed heterozygosities ranging from 0.6729 at GDSNWR to 0.7219 at ARNWR. FST and DS values were relatively low (0.0257-0.0895 and 0.0971-0.3640, respectively), indicating movement of bears and gene flow across the landscape is adequate to prevent high levels of genetic differentiation and structure among the refuge bears. Genetic statistics at GDSNWR indicate that this population is isolated to some degree by geography (i.e., the Albemarle Sound) and encroaching urban development (i.e., the towns of Suffolk and Chesapeake). ARNWR has the potential to become isolated in the future if movement corridors to the south of the refuge are not maintained. Harvest of bears is likely warranted at PLNWR and ARNWR, though extreme caution must be taken the first few seasons as hunter success will be extremely high. Further research is needed to determine population growth rates, reproductive parameters, and survival rates at all 3 refuges, particularly if a hunting season will be established and maintained in these areas. Methods for regularly monitoring bear populations at these refuges also should be incorporated into biological programs, as bears comprise a significant component of the ecosystem at these refuges and cannot be ignored when outlining management goals. / Master of Science

Long-term diet patterns based on stable isotope analysis may be helpful to understand changes in food selection of black bears (Ursus americanus) over time and guide management programs to reduce human-bear conflicts. An enriched stable carbon isotope signature indicates an anthropogenic food source in the diet and an enriched nitrogen signature indicates a higher tropic level for a species. I examined longitudinal feeding patterns from 117 hair samples of black bears live captured in Great Smoky Mountains National Park during 1980–2001 using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis from hair samples. I developed a set of a priori models to examine if sex, age class, year, weight class, total hard mast index, white oak index (Quercus spp.), red oak index (Quercus spp.), nuisance status and hog harvest (Sus scrofa) affected stable isotope signatures. I used model averaging and an estimator of the unconditional variance was used to account for model uncertainty. The δ[delta]13C signatures differed by weight class with above average weight, (ß[Beta] = 0.76‰; 95% CI = 0.28 to 1.23) and average weight (ß[Beta] = 0.42‰; CI = 0.06 to 0.78) showing enriched values compared to below average bears. Bears had enriched δ[delta]15N signatures in years with low white oak mast production (ß[beta] = -0.19, CI = -0.34 to -0.03) and depleted when white oak hard mast was abundant. Sub adult bears had enriched δ[delta]15N signatures compared to adult and older adult bears. Variation of nitrogen values was small during 1980–1991 ( = 2.57, SD = 0.28) but increased substantially during 1992–2000 ( = 2.29, SD = 0.71) when there was substantial variation in hard mast production. Bears in better physical condition appear more likely to access anthropogenic food sources. In years of low white oak acorn production, the larger bears and sub adult bears are more likely to turn to alternative food sources. The long term variation detected in this study is important in identifying which bears are potentially more likely to seek out the anthropogenic food sources when changes occur in availability of natural foods.

Concerns over human-bear conflict and questions about the ecology of Paunsaugunt Plateau's population of black bears (Ursus americanus) arose due to their visitation to popular recreation sites. Greater insight about bears and their habitat use provides a foundation for conflict mitigation and effective management decisions. Between 2014 and 2017, seventeen black bears (11 female, 6 male) were fitted with global positioning system (GPS) radio-collars so that we could track their locations, daily activity patterns, and ambient temperatures. By analyzing bear locations, we calculated annual and seasonal home ranges for 16 bears, including 25 den sites. Home ranges typically consisted of three dominant vegetation types, Utah juniper, ponderosa pine and Douglas fir. I used mixed effects models to better understand den site selection and found that slope (27.87 ± 2.03) was the most significant factor (p < 0.001). I also used mixed effects models to understand black bear selection of annual and seasonal home ranges. Predictor variables with the greatest effect (p < 0.001) were elevation (2419.99 ± 1.35) and aspect (138.44 ± 0.64), with coefficients of 1.128 and -1.483 respectively. Male annual home ranges (327.20 km2 ± 133.58 km2) were significantly larger (p = 0.035) than female home ranges (175.10 km2 ± 55.37 km2). However, annual home ranges for both sexes were larger than those during hyperphagia (p = 0.003) or mating (p = 0.004) seasonal home ranges, between which there was no difference (p = 0.451). Individual home ranges overlapped for most bears, consistent with their non-territorial nature. I found that bears avoided roads and lower elevations, while showing a preference for sloping terrain throughout the non-denning period. Paunsaugunt black bear home ranges are larger than any other black bear home ranges reported in literature. We determined weekly average distances and directions for all bears. For two bears, one male and one female, we determined daily averages and directions. Nine bears provided daily averages for 12 seasonal units across all four years. Activity patterns indicate the typical crepuscular pattern noted in normal bear populations that lack human habituation. Identifying areas core use areas and potential den sites is helpful to understanding black bear ecology and useful when making decisions about how to plan infrastructure and educate the public. This research indicates that Paunsaugunt black bears avoid human activity; however, we need continued research to help determine specific interactions between bears and anthropomorphic influences.

This study examined two different aspects of black bear (Ursus americanus) ecology in Utah. First, we determined the post-denning behaviors of female black bears in order to help management agencies protect bears from human disturbances as well as set spring hunts that minimize the taking of females with dependent young. We looked at the timing of den emergence (X = 25 March), the number of days at the den site post emergence (X = 11 days), and departure (X = 8 April) for female black bears in Utah from 2011—2013. We also analyzed the effects of cohort (lone female, female with cubs, and female with yearlings), region of Utah, year, elevation, and weather on emergence, departure, and total number of days at den. Lastly, we describe behaviors observed at the den site. We found that first emergence was significantly correlated with cohort and spring temperature. Departure date was significantly correlated with geographic region, spring temperature during emergence and departure, and temperature the spring and summer before denning. Total number of days at den was significantly correlated with cohort and last frost date from the year before. Bears spent little of the post-denning period outside of the dens (X = 9.8% of total observation time). When outside of dens, bears were often observed walking, lying down, sitting and standing. We also observed unique behaviors, including gathering nest materials, nursing, and ingesting. Dens were frequently visited by other wildlife as well. Second, we analyzed conflict between humans and black bears in Utah. The Utah Division of Wildlife Resources initiated a black bear sightings and encounters database in 2003. We upgraded this database by gathering available records and organizing them into a new database for analysis using Microsoft Access®. From 2003—2013 there were 943 records, with 499 bear-human encounters, 33 incidents, 10 attacks, 208 property damages, 187 sightings, and 6 vehicle collisions. Utah county had the highest number of events (n = 115). The majority of events took place at campsites (n = 363). Summer was the most common season for events (n = 715). Time of day was frequently not reported, but when it was, most events occurred at night (n = 173). We found no significant increase in the number of events over the last ten years. We also found no significant relationship between the number of events per year and drought data. The highest number of events involved single bears (n = 843), and over half of events had food or garbage available for the bear (n = 475).

The convergence of three young scientific disciplines (ecology, geospatial sciences, and remote sensing) has generated unique advancements in wildlife research by connecting ecological data with remote sensing data through the application of geospatial techniques. Ecological datasets may contain spatial and sampling biases. By using geospatial techniques, datasets may be useful in revealing landscape scale (e.g., statewide) trends for wildlife populations, such as population recovery and human-wildlife interactions. Specifically, black bear populations across North America vary greatly in their degree of distribution stability. The black bear population in Michigan may be considered stable or secure, whereas the population in Missouri is currently recolonizing. The focus of the research in this dissertation is to examine the ecological and anthropogenic impacts 1) on human-black bear interactions in Michigan (see Chapter 2) and 2) on black bear presence in Missouri (see Chapter 3), through the use of black bear reports provided by the public to the state wildlife agencies. By using generalized linear modeling (GLM) and maximum entropy (MaxEnt), I developed spatial distribution models of probability of occurrence/presence for the 2 study areas (Michigan and Missouri). For the Missouri study, I quantified the spatiotemporal shifts in the probability of bear presence statewide. The results from my statewide studies corroborate previous local-scale research based on rigorous data collection. Overall, human-black bear interactions (e.g., wildlife sightings, conflicts), while very dynamic, appear greatest in forested and rural areas where the preferred habitat for black bears (i.e., forest) intersects with low density anthropogenic activities. As both human and black bear populations continue to expand, it is reasonable to expect human-black bear interactions to spatiotemporally increase across both study areas. The results from my studies provide wildlife managers with information critical to management decisions such as harvest regulations and habitat conservation actions across the landscape and through time. The ability to detect and monitor ecological changes through the use of geospatial techniques can lead to insights about the stressors and drivers of population-level change, further facilitating the development of proactive causeocused management strategies.

This thesis explores patterns of faunal exploitation habits at the McDonald site, in the Saint-Anicet area during the Late Woodland period. The main goal is to determine the importance of wild game in the Iroquoian economical system which is based on the balance of fishing, hunting and horticulture. The result of the faunal analysis shows that White-Tailed Deer, North American Black Bear and North American Beaver are the most important taxa contributing to the subsistence economy of the inhabitants of the site. This was determined by standard zooarchaeological methods, including calculation of the number of identified specimens (NISP), the minimum number of individuals (MNI), meat weight (MW) and ethnohistorical data. This thesis also discusses the spatial distribution of animal skeletal remains, comparing meat consumption patterns within each family unity inside the longhouses and within and between each longhouse. This comparison shows that faunal remains are mostly located in the central alignment of longhouses and are homogeneously distributed. The taxa distributed within the longhouses suggest relatively equalitarian access to animal resources. Analysis of the bone concentrations shows a collaborative tendency between family units within the community. Furthermore, the faunal assemblage tends to show an annual occupation of the site. Sedentary occupation of the site is also supported by ceramic analysis and cultigen analysis. Finally, we compare the mammal NISP and MNI of the McDonald's site with seven other contemporaneous archaeological sites from the region. This comparison shows that mammalian resources declined in importance in the Iroquoian diet between the beginning of the 14th century and the first part of the 16th century, probably due to the adoption of horticulture. / Ce mémoire porte sur l'exploitation de la faune par les habitants du site McDonald de la région de Saint-Anicet. L'objectif principal est de caractériser la place des mammifères dans l’économie mixte des Iroquoiens du Saint-Laurent à un moment où l’horticulture gagne en popularité. L’étude de l’assemblage faunique a permis de déterminer que le cerf de Virginie, l’ours noir et le castor du Canada sont les principaux taxons mammaliens qui contribuent de façon économique, technologique et symbolique à l’économie de subsistance des habitants du site McDonald. Cette étude a été menée en intégrant des statistiques descriptives propres à la zooarchéologie telles que le nombre de restes déterminés (NRD), le nombre minimal d’individus (NMI) et le poids de viande (PV) avec des sources d’informations connexes telles que des documents ethnohistoriques, des guides fauniques et des statistiques gouvernementales. Ce travail utilise également l’analyse de la distribution spatiale des restes squelettiques qui montre une répartition des matières dures animales majoritairement alignée dans l’axe central des maisons-longues. La distribution spatiale des taxons montre quant à elle une homogénéité dans la dispersion des animaux entre les maisons-longues, ainsi qu’une répartition relativement égalitaire des ressources carnées entre les unités familiales. L’analyse des concentrations révèle même un esprit de collaboration entre les unités familiales contiguës. De plus, le spectre de faune tend à démontrer une occupation annuelle du site, ce qui corrobore l’analyse céramique et l’analyse des cultigènes. Finalement, en comparant le NRD et le NMI mammalien du site McDonald avec sept autres sites contemporains, l’analyse faunique démontre que les ressources mammaliennes sont en décroissance dans l’alimentation des Iroquoiens entre le début du 14e siècle et la première moitié du 16e siècle, période qui correspond justement à l’essor de l’horticulture (maïs, haricot, courge) au sein de la diète iroquoienne, ce qui caractérise l’économie mixte de la période du Sylvicole supérieur.