M.A. (Counselling Psychology) / Management is an ancient art practiced in the past by among others fathers, kings and ministers. Today it is recognised that management pervades every aspect of society: the individual, family unit, the government and organisations. Virtually everyone is a manager in some phase of his daily life ...

Guidance was introduced into Black Schools in 1981. Its aim was to help students so that they could understand themselves and the world they live in. At present it appears that very little Guidance is taking place in the Mdantsane High Schools. This was supported by these research findings. In the research five High Schools were investigated to discover the state of Guidance in these High Schools. The writer made use of an interview schedule which was presented to the principals of the five High Schools. Questionnaires were given to twenty seven Guidance teachers from the same High Schools and to two hundred and fifty student respondents. In each High School fifty student respondents were chosen, that is, ten from each standard. The research findings suggested that Guidance is not receiving its rightful place in these five High Schools since it is not effectively taught. The findings were generalised to other High Schools. Reasons for the ineffective teaching of Guidance were given by both the principal and teacher respondents. Recommendations are made as to how this state of Guidance can be remedied and improved.

Current theories in geographical education advocate the use of strategies that encourage the pupil to play an active role in learning, thereby making such learning more meaningful and effective. Fieldwork is perceived as one such method. Fieldwork helps pupils acquire and develop understanding of geographical concepts, skills, attitudes and values through their own efforts and involvement. Fieldwork approaches have tended to change with the changing paradigms resulting in the development of approaches that are more pupil and experience oriented. In the South African school geography curricula fieldwork has been explicit since 1985. However, research has shown that in most South African secondary schools fieldwork as a teaching strategy is only applied to a limited extent. Teachers have always used financial constraints and time limitations as explanations for their failure to use fieldwork in teaching geography. This study attempts to demonstrate how the local environment of any school can be used effectively for teaching and learning most aspects of the senior secondary school geography syllabus, thereby alleviating the problems of time and money perceived by teachers as the major constraints inhibiting their use of fieldwork. In order to illustrate the effectiveness of fieldwork in the local environment, this study incorporated an analysis of the current senior secondary school geography syllabus, the identification of potential fieldwork sites in the Umtata District and the development and implementation of three fieldwork units based on three of the sites identified. The analysis of the evaluations of the three fieldwork units by the researcher, the pupils and the non-participant observer revealed that fieldwork conducted in the local environment is highly effective, interesting and rewarding to pupils even when they have no prior experience of fieldwork.

The adolescent stage of development entails many overt and covert challenges and influences that have bearing on spheres of later life, including career development. With South African counsellors being largely dependent on Western career theories, the influence of contextual factors such as cultural beliefs and historical background on the career development of South African adolescents has been largely ignored. The recent acknowledgement of the unique and complex interrelationship between individuals and their specific social, environmental and societal context has motivated the development of an overarching theoretical framework of career development, the Systems Theory Framework (STF). The present study has therefore employed the STF and a qualitative career assessment measure, the My System of Career Influences (MSCI), to facilitate in exploring and describing the unique systems of career influence on the career development of a group of South African adolescents. A non-probability, purposive sampling technique was employed to obtain the sample from a co-educational, Xhosa-speaking secondary school situated in a low socioeconomic area. The research approach was exploratory and descriptive in nature, and the MSCI assisted in the collection of qualitative and quantitative data from a sample of 64 Grade 9, 10 and 11 female and male black adolescents from low socioeconomic status environments. The qualitative data was subjected to content analysis to identify themes, while frequency counts/percentages were used for the quantitative data. The results of the study indicate that all influences within the three interrelated career systems have an influence on the career development of black adolescents. Furthermore, the MSCI workbook was shown to assist participants in identifying and evaluating significant systemic influences that have contributed to their career development to date. Participants from both genders and all grade levels were able to successfully complete the MSCI workbook and provide reflective comments on their MSCI personalised diagrams. The applicability of both the STF and the MSCI are acknowledged. Limitations and recommendations for future research based on the present findings are suggested.

D.Ed. / Guidance is essential in a child's development because most traits of human life, with the exclusion of genetic characteristics, are learned (City Press, 1998:7). The learning process raises the question of where and from whom these characteristics are acquired. This, according to Ferron (1990:45), implies that maximum performance of man is a result of good and sound guidance. This may be an oversimplification, but even if it is only partly true, guidance cannot be neglected without detrimental effects for the children involved. Furthermore, the question of school guidance becomes increasingly important as shifts in family structures and values - such as are common today - affect the quality of interaction between parents and children. According to Godbold (1994:6) an increasing number of children face deteriorating family bonds, lack of shelter, out-ofwedlock births, abortion, and drug and alcohol related crimes. Ferron (1991:72) adds bullying, truancy, delinquency, lack of motivation, peer pressure and parental relationship problems to this list. Many children experience grave educational neglect - virtually none of their needs are cared for. There even are rural children who are left alone by parents who have gone to the cities to work, and who have no one to take care of them. They often have no one to turn to for sustenance and advice. As a result guidance teachers must be more than ever involved in helping children with various personal problems (Moraba, 1996:3), which were traditionally handled by parents. When schools fail to address the immediate family and social needs of learners, learning becomes difficult and relatively unimportant (Godbold, 1994:7). According to Chuenyane (1990:10), through the school guidance activities, learners should be assisted to know who they are, to accept themselves, to master selfimprovement and self-direction, and to develop good life skills. With regard to socialisation, they should learn to relate to others by interacting with them and becoming sensitive to their feelings and being appreciative of their views and beliefs. Our youth is seen as our most precious resource and the future leaders; therefore, they must be mature and increase their peaceful co-existence (Chuenyane, 1990:10). Guidance in the secondary school is chiefly concerned with meeting the physical, social, emotional and educational needs of learners (Rooth, 1995:54). Vocational guidance is included in the needs list and is an important facet. The purpose of school guidance is to help each child make a satisfactory adjustment to life, both in school and out. Although Kallaway (1988:1) does not focus explicitly on school guidance, his remark that " ... the crucial relation between schooling and society is often and systematically denied" is of extreme importance. As this subject is ideally suited to emphasise this relation, it is a service that should be provided to all learners, and not only those who have behaviour problems, learning difficulties and emotional disturbances. Normal, well-adjusted learners also need to be guided in their thinking, their attitudes and their personality development. They must be prepared for all challenges in the future job market and life in general. The gifted, talented ones are often also in need of special help in gaining social approval and in finding suitable outlets for their interests (Sowetan, 1996:12). If the school is seen as an agent for change, it must implement career counselling (vocational guidance) to help the child in self-understanding, self-acceptance, interests, aspirations, experiences, as well as in physical, intellectual, psychological and spiritual development (Chuenyane, 1990:46). These are considered important because it helps learners to appreciate and utilize their aptitudes, interests and values (Sedibe, 1991:4). This will help them to gain insight into their limitations with regard to their coping strategies, which concern problems they are confronted with on a daily basis. Furthermore it must be kept in mind that certain elements in the school situation that influence learners can be identified; these include the impact teachers' and peer groups' behaviour has on children. One aspect that comes to mind, for example, is that of substance abuse, especially alcohol. Chuenyane (1991:46) reports that almost 70% - 80% of all learners in his research were drinking and abusing drugs. As drugs and alcohol have a negative effect on the education and health of the learner, and it is indicated by Raikane (1996:28) that drugs and alcohol have a strong relationship to crime, frustration and aggression, such learners need proper guidance and counselling. Adolescents, especially, need guidance and counselling as they are in a difficult developmental phase, and often have negative attitudes towards school (Wiseman, 1991:71).

M.Ed. (Educational Linguistics) / The problem addressed in this research is the working hypothesis stating that teachers' tacit notions about individual writing development is related to their views on the pedagogy of writing. The rationale for the premise underlying the problem is that pedagogy is invariably based on teachers' conceptions of content and that unarticulated notions could accommodate conceptions which could in turn inhibit pedagogic activity, in this instance. the teaching of writing at higher capacity levels. The theory frame for this study includes readings in the phylogeny and ontogeny of writing. contemporary models of the teaching of writing and psycholinguistic theory on writing, as well as sociolinguistic views on the development and nature of writing. The theoretical premise for the research is based on Vygotskian principles of semiotics, the main ones being that writing as cultural tool and as sign impacts in a socio-cultural way on the signifiedand that the tool and sign as mediators are partners in intermental but especially also intramental functioning. The implications for pedagogy are that the meaningful teaching of writing skills and strategies could enhance mental activity (cognition) and communication. The nature of the research question presupposes a microgenetic study as format. which in turn directs the research to protocol interviews, on-site observations and analysis of documents. much of which will be of qualitative interpretive nature. A group of 16 teachers will be studied. with the microgenetic analyses focusing on three cases, selected in a stratified way. The findings of the inquiry indicate that there seems to be a relationship between the ontogeny and the pedagogy of writing, because the teachers involved in the inquiry emphasize the use of the prosthetic device, both in their own writing and in their instructional design and this is the way they were taught to write. It was also found that the teachers are deficient with regard to knowledge of the cognitive nature, the structure and the pedagogy of writing. The teachers were also found to have a positive attitude towards writing. despite the fact that their writing proficiency is severely impaired by a lack of knowledge of writing strategies as well as linguistic incompetence in English

Bibliography: p. 104-111. / This study focuses on the Langa Enrichment Programme an educational support programme for black students studying under the Department of Education and Training in the Cape Peninsula. The study aimed to determine students' reasons for attending the programme, their perceptions of its strengths and weaknesses and their recommendations for improvements. Student expectations of the programme and reasons for the high dropout rate especially amongst Standard Nine and female students were explored. To contextualise the study and to give further insights into student views a brief summary of the apartheid education crisis is given. Educational support programmes are reviewed as is liberalism's response to the crisis in education and the history and culture of the South African Institute of Race Relations. The methodology used was two-fold: self-administered questionnaires to 126 Standard 10 Mathematics students and a series of focus group interviews with small groups of students. The findings may be summed up as follows. Students were generally positive towards the teachers, teaching methods and administration of the programme. They requested that teachers should teach and complete the syllabus, emphasizing exam questions, revision and scientific experiments, and explore alternative small group teaching with critical discussions. Students also requested a comprehensive career guidance programme, bursary information and increased financial assistance. Students expressed a reluctance to pay fees and this, coupled with increasing requests for financial and educational supp01t, raises the issue of welfarism on the programme. Reasons for the high dropout rate amongst Standard Nines included that they write an internal examination. Social pressures from boyfriends and peer groups and regarding clothes were given as reasons for female students dropping out of the programme. The students appear to determine the direction of the school in that as a result of their demands the programme has changed from an enrichment programme to a compensatory one. Recommendations in the concluding chapter of this study are that the Enrichment Programme should draw up clearer policy guidelines in conjunction with staff and students; liaison with DET secondary schools, tertiary institutions and other enrichment programmes should be improved; career guidance programmes linked to bursary information should be implemented; bursaries and other incentives should be linked to attendance and academic performance on the programme; a full time co-ordinator should be employed.

Bibliography: pages 126-137. / Black schooling has been plunged into deep crisis following persistent political and ideological assertiveness by users' against the intransigent State. Assertive practices in the State black secondary schools climaxed with the refusal by students to sit for examinations. Accompanying these assertive practices were the disintegration of order and the alarming failure rate, all of which put teachers in the midst of accusations from both the State and some users. The State blamed teachers for disorderliness, the lack of discipline of students and for not doing their work efficiently. Some users accused teachers of incompetency and often of sustaining the State hegemony. Teachers, however, redirected the accusations at the State for its authoritarianism. These labellings reflect the impact the interminable education crisis has had on teachers working within State schools which are the site of race and class struggle. The crisis bears heavily and negatively on teachers' authority to an extent where some scholars highlight that teachers have become professionally dysfunctional and have since lost authority (see below). The study takes these charges seriously and is geared towards understanding teachers' authority within the context of South African education system whose bias favours white, in particular Afrikaner supremacy and the domination of the ruling classes. This could mean that teachers' authority is either a creation of this supremacy/domination and its maintenance or a product of resistance towards such domination. In order to test this theoretical supposition, particular attention was given towards understanding the significance of teachers' authority, its social bases, the way it is exercised and its stability or instability in the context of the current education crisis. What came to light was the fact that teachers exercised a form of authority predetermined by the State whilst at the same time there were attempts to move away from that practice and establish an alternative authority. The new form of authority was interpreted as being influenced by an ideology whose ultimate aim was to transform the imposed status quo. The conclusions were that teachers' authority remained in crisis as did the schools, due to teachers' work which either conflicted with the educational policy or which propped up the system in the face of insurmountable resistance from users. It was suggested that teachers are likely to thrive in the crisis if they were able to collectively amass political professional power in alliance with the community to engage in counter-hegemony.

The learning styles of 30 urban and 30 rural black children were rated by their teachers, using the Learning Style Identification Inventory. The results obtained frtiin the teachers of the rural sample were found to be inaccurate. It was therefore not possible to make comparisons with previous findings. The results of the urban sample suggest that, on the Abstract-Concrete dimension their learning styles tended towards the Concrete end of the dimension, and on the Verbal-imaginal dimension, their ratings tended towards the Imaginal end of the dimension. An analysis of variance and Bonferroni / test indicated that these children were rated significantly more Imaginal than Verbal and significantly more Concrete than Abstract These findings are in contrast with previous research in other countries and tentatively suggest that urban children in South Africa are functioning in a manner more consistent with findings regarding learning styles of rural children in other countries. This has implications for teachers and the teaching styles of teachers in urban schools.

Educational Studies / M. Ed. (History of Education)