Generation of wastes in the form of liquid, solid or gas is inevitable in any industry.Industrial Solid Waste is the waste that is generated from an industrial or manufacturing process and includes the waste generated from non-manufacturing activities as well.Most of these wastes fall under the category of Ashes, Slagsor Sludges. For the present work, three types of secondary lead slag, two types of granulated blast furnace slag (GBS) or iron slag and four types of steel slags were procured and studied.An elaborate study on various characteristics of the slags has been performed. Based on the results, all the possible applications for the individual slags are considered. The performance of the secondary lead slag as an embankment material was analyzed. The slope stability for various conditionswas analyzed using Geo5 and experimentally determined strength parameters. It was found that the material can be used safely for embankment constructions.The CBR values were very good in the range for both GBS and steel slag,thus repeated load triaxial test are done to determine the resilient modulus. k1-k3model was adopted and the regression coefficients were determined. Based on the results the pavement design is done using KENPAVE software. An exercise has been performed to determine the quantity of the conventional material that could be saved, considering the type and size of the pavement. For the aggregate sized steel slag, the tests were done to find the suitability of the material for various applications like, as railway ballast, concrete aggregate, gabion and rip rap stones. And the tests result shows the material to be suitable for these applications and is expected to perform well. Study on morphological parameters reveals that the size and gradation of any material plays an important role in its mechanical behavior, however in the case of slags, this could be tailor made by using appropriate crushers, as per the requirements.

A reação álcali-agregado é uma manifestação patológica diretamente ligada à seleção dos materiais (cimento, agregados miúdo e graúdo, água e aditivos) que pode comprometer a durabilidade das estruturas de concreto, uma vez que a interação desses materiais e as condições ambientais é que vão conferir ao concreto determinadas propriedades ligadas à sua vida útil. A reação entre os hidróxidos alcalinos solubilizados na fase líquida dos poros dos concretos e alguns agregados reativos é lenta e resulta em um gel que, ao se acumular em vazios do concreto e na interface pasta-agregado, na presença de água, se expande, exercendo pressão interna no concreto. Ao exceder a resistência à tração do concreto, a pressão interna pode promover fissurações. A reação álcali-agregado requer a atuação conjunta de água, agregado reativo e álcalis. Sua prevenção pode ser feita a partir da eliminação de um dos fatores, ou seja, a partir do emprego de agregados inertes ou de cimentos com baixos teores de álcalis ou isolamento da umidade. Na impossibilidade de eliminar um dos fatores, medidas preventivas devem ser tomadas para o emprego de agregados reativos em obras de construção civil. Entre essas, destacam-se a utilização de cimentos com baixos teores de álcalis ou a de cimentos com adições ativas mitigadoras da reação álcali-agregado: escória de alto-forno, cinza volante, metacaulim e sílica ativa, que foi o objeto de pesquisa do presente trabalho. No programa experimental foram analisados dois tipos de agregado potencialmente reativos com os hidróxidos alcalinos: EDVDOWR e PLORQLWR_ JUDQtWLFR. O primeiro, proveniente de rocha ígnea, tem como constituintes deletérios vidro, clorofeíta, calcedônia (sílica criptocristalina), que dará origem à reação do tipo iOFDOL_VtOLFD. O agregado milonito granítico provém de rocha metamórfica, tem como constituintes deletérios quartzo microgranular, quartzo recristalizado, quartzo com extinção ondulante e quartzo e feldspato deformados, que dará origem ao tipo de reação iOFDOL_VLOLFDWR. Com o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência de adições ativas em mitigar as reações, os agregados foram combinados com 16 cimentos com adições ativas. Escória de alto-forno foi adicionada a 15%, 30%, 45% e 60% e cinza volante, a 10%, 15%, 25% e 35%, teores normalmente encontrados nos cimentos brasileiros. Metacaulim foi adicionada a 5%, 10%, 15% e 20%, e sílica ativa, a 5%, 10% e 15%, teores representativos da faixa normalmente adicionada diretamente a concretos. Todos os materiais utilizados foram caracterizados química, física e mineralogicamente, incluindo a análise petrográfica dos agregados. As barras de argamassa foram analisadas ao MEV, microscópio óptico de luz transmitida, realizaram-se ensaios de porosimetria por intrusão de mercúrio e análises térmicas para quantificar a teor de portlandita residual, e determinou-se o teor de álcalis dentro das barras após a realização dos ensaios para verificar a migração de íons de sódio. Os resultados indicam que a eficiência das adições ativas varia de acordo com a composição química e mineralógica das adições, da proporção desse material no cimento, e do grau de reatividade do agregado. / The alkali-aggregate reaction is a pathologic manifestation that can induce the premature distress and loss in serviceability of concrete structures affected. It is directly associated to the selection of materials (cement, coarse and fine aggregates, water and additives), as the interaction between these materials and environmental condition will grant the concrete some of the properties related to its service life. The slow reaction between alkali hydroxides soluble in the liquid phase within concrete pores and reactive aggregates gives rise to a gel that piles up within concrete voids and the aggregate-paste interface. In presence of water, the gel expands and exerts internal pressure in the concrete. When the internal pressure exceeds the tensile strength, cracking may come up as result. The alkali-aggregate reaction requires the action of water, reactive aggregate and alkalis altogether. Prevention can be carried out by eliminating one of these factors, i.e. employing either inert aggregates or lowalkali cements, or keeping the concrete away from moisture. Otherwise, preventive measures must be taken when reactive aggregates are used in civil construction works, such as the use of low-alkali cements or composite cements bearing alkaliaggregate- reaction mitigating admixtures: blast-furnace slag, fly ash, metakaolin and silica fume, which are the object of the present research. The experimental work included the analysis of two potentially reactive aggregates to alkali hydroxides: basalt and granite milonite. The igneous basalt carries deleterious constituents such as glass, chloropheite (cryptocrystalline silica), that will give rise to the DONDOL_VLOLFD type reaction while the metamorphic granite milonite carries micro granular, recrystallized, undulate-extinction-bearing quartz and deformed feldspar grains, that give rise to DONDOL_VLOLFDWH type reaction. Aiming at evaluating how efficient in mitigating these reactions the active admixtures are, these aggregates were mixed with 16 composite cements. The contents of admixtures followed those usually found in Brazilian industrial cements for blast-furnace slag (15%, 30%, 45%, 60%) and fly ash (10%, 15%, 25%, 35%), and those generally added directly to concrete for metakaolin (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%) and silica fume (5%, 10%, 15%). All materials were characterized for their chemical composition, physical properties and mineralogy. Petrography was carried out on the aggregates. The mortar bars were analyzed at the scanning electronic and transmitted-light optical microscopes. Mercury-intrusion porosimetry and thermal analyses were carried out to quantify residual portlandite. The alkali content within the bars was determined in order to verify migration of Na+ ions. The results show that the efficiency of active admixtures varies according to their chemical and mineralogical composition and proportioning in cement, and to the aggregate reactivity.

O objetivo desta tese foi o estudo da influência do aditivo redutor de retração (SRA) e o aditivo compensador de retração (SCA) em argamassas e pastas de cimento de escória ativada com silicato de sódio. A metodologia foi centrada na análise da retração por secagem e autógena, com o estudo de outras características que influenciam no fenômeno da retração, como as propriedades mecânicas. Para o avanço no conhecimento do efeito dos aditivos no comportamento do cimento de escória, foi caracterizada a microestrutura com a determinação da análise por termogravimetria, porosimetria e difração de raios X. Neste estudo foram empregados os seguintes teores de aditivo, porcentagem relativa à massa de aglomerante: 0,5%, 1%, 1,5% e 2% do aditivo SRA e 5%, 10% e 15% do aditivo SCA. Para a análise da influência da relação a/agl foram empregadas três teores: 0,40, 0,48 e 0,56. No estudo das amostras de referência, sem a utilização de aditivo, observou-se que o aumento da relação a/agl causa o aumento da retração por secagem e da retração autógena do cimento de escória ativada. A diminuição da resistência mecânica com o aumento da relação a/agl, o que torna o esqueleto sólido mais susceptível à deformações, e o aumento das tensões capilares, em razão do aumento da quantidade de água livre para ser evaporada, são os principais fatores para o aumento da retração por secagem. No caso da retração autógena, seu aumento é atribuído ao aumento da auto-secagem com o aumento do volume de poros com diâmetro na faixa de mesoporos, além da diminuição da resistência mecânica. O aditivo redutor de retração (SRA) conseguiu reduzir a retração por secagem em percentuais de 40% até 74% aos 28 dias, no entanto, este tipo de aditivo não obteve êxito no combate a retração autógena. Com relação à resistência mecânica, o aditivo SRA causou a redução de até 40%, efeito atribuído à diminuição do grau de hidratação e retardo do refinamento da porosidade. O aditivo compensador de retração (SCA) amenizou a retração por secagem e a retração autógena, reduzindo em até 64% e 70%, respectivamente, porém reduziu em até 60% a resistência mecânica do cimento de escória ativada. Com relação à microestrutura, o aditivo SCA diminuiu o grau de hidratação e aumentou a porosidade total, com o aumento da proporção do volume de macroporos. / The aim of this research was the study of the influence of shrinkage reducing admixture (SRA) and shrinkage compensating admixture (SCA) in mortars and pastes of blast furnace slag activated with sodium silicate. The method was centered in the analysis of free drying and autogenous shrinkage, with other characteristics that affect the shrinkage, as the mechanical properties. The microstructure behavior was accomplished with thermogravimetry (TG), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The samples were prepared with 0,5%, 1%, 1,5% and 2% of SRA admixture and 5%, 10% and 15% of SCA admixture, by binder mass. The effect of water/binder ratio was accomplished in three contents: 0,40, 0,48 and 0,56. In the reference mixtures, without admixtures, it was observed that an increase of water/binder ratio incurs in an increase of drying and autogenous shrinkage of alkali activated slag. The explanations for drying shrinkage behavior are the decrease of mechanical strength as consequence of water/binder increase, that turns the porous structure more susceptible to deformations, and the increase of the capillary tensions, attributed to the increase of free water to be evaporated. The increase of autogenous shrinkage with water/binder ratio is attributed to the increase of pore volume with diameter in the mesopores range, besides the decrease of the mechanical strength. The shrinkage reducing admixture (SRA) diminish drying shrinkage of 40% up to 74% at 28 days, however, this type of admixture was not capable to combat the autogenous shrinkage. About mechanical strength, the SRA admixture incurs in a decrease up to 40% of compression strength that it was attributed to the decrease of the hydration degree and retard of pore size refinement. The shrinkage compensating admixture (SCA) softened drying and autogenous shrinkage, reducing in up to 64% and 70%, respectively. However, the SCA admixture decreases in up to 60% mechanical strength of alkali activated slag. About microstructure, SCA admixture reduced the hydration degree and it increased the total porosity, with the increase of macropores volume.

The electrical resistivity is an important concrete property that allows evaluating the access facility of aggressive agents before the corrosion process begins and estimates the velocity of the same process after it begun. The electrical resistivity and the oxygen availability are the characteristics that control the corrosion velocity. This work aimed to evaluate the performance of white Portland cement concretes with high blast furnace slag content and chemical activation on the electrical resistivity. Other properties were measured, as axial compressive strength, porosity and specific electrical conductivity of pore solution. Four mixtures were tested, a reference one, only with white Portland cement as binder, a second one, with 50% of blast furnace slag in substitution of cement, other with 70% slag content, and the last one, with 50% of slag and alkaline activation, 4% of Na2SO4. The water/binder ratios were fixed at 0,30, 0,42 and 0,55 for all samples. The electrical resistivity was measured using the four electrode method (Wenner method). The sample age, water/binder ratio and the slag content have an expressive effect over the electrical resistivity, especially because it results in changes of the pore structure. The electrical resistivity grows as the amount of slag increases. The increase of slag amount also results in smaller specific electrical conductivity of pore solution and pore structure refinement. On the other hand, the axial compressive strength decreases as the slag amount increases. The biggest resistivity results were obtained for the mixture with 70% of slag. This mixture showed the best cost/benefit ratio as compressive strength were fixed at 35 and 55 MPa, at 28 days, and 60 MPa, at 91 days. / A resistividade elétrica é uma importante propriedade do concreto por permitir avaliar a facilidade de acesso de agentes agressivos antes de instalado o processo corrosivo e estimar a velocidade do mesmo depois de instalado, sendo conjuntamente com a disponibilidade de oxigênio um dos parâmetros determinantes para a velocidade da corrosão. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o desempenho de concretos de cimento Portland branco com elevados teores de escória de alto forno e ativação química quanto à resistividade elétrica aparente. Foram avaliadas além da resistividade outras grandezas como resistência à compressão, porosidade e condutividade específica da solução dos poros. Foram investigadas quatro misturas, uma de referência contendo apenas cimento, uma segunda com teor de substituição de cimento por escória de 50%, outra com teor de substituição de 70% e uma última contendo 50% de escória e ativador alcalino, Na2SO4, em um teor de 4%. As relações água/aglomerante foram fixadas em 0,30, 0,42 e 0,55 para todas as misturas. A medida da resistividade elétrica foi realizada através do método dos quatro eletrodos (Wenner). A resistividade elétrica se mostrou dependente da idade, relação a/ag e teor de escória, principalmente, em função das alterações que estas proporcionam na estrutura de poros da pasta. A resistividade cresceu proporcionalmente ao aumento do teor de escória. O aumento do teor de escória resultou também em menor condutividade da solução aquosa e refinamento da estrutura de poros da pasta. Por outro lado, a resistência à compressão diminuiu com o crescimento do teor de escória. Os maiores valores de resistividade elétrica foram apresentados pela mistura contendo 70% de escória. Esta mistura se mostrou a de melhor relação custo/benefício quando se fixaram valores de resistência à compressão de 35 e 55 MPa, aos 28 dias, e 60 MPa, aos 91 dias.

Alkali activated materials (AAMs) represent construction materials with a huge potential especially because of environmental and economic aspects but sufficient mechanical properties as well. A fibre or fabric reinforcement of the AAMs could support more widespread application potential due to the mechanical properties, fracture toughness or composite durability improvement. Various alkaline activators were used for a blast furnace slag (BFS) activation to produce a suitable matrix for basalt fibres (BF) implementation in this thesis. The BFs represent applicable reinforcing material because of its favourable mechanical and thermal properties. Still, the utilization of BFs in the AAMs is quite limited due to the fibres low chemical stability under the alkaline conditions. Accelerated leaching tests with a determination of basalt fibres chemical composition same as tensile strength change using various analytical techniques (XRD, XPS, SEM-EDX, ICP-OES) have confirmed these assumptions. An influence of basalt fabric reinforcement in one or more layers on the mechanical properties was determined with the meaning of the compressive and flexural strengths. The fibre/matrix adhesion and transition zone properties were studied using SEM-EDX and pull-out tests as well because they are crucial parameters for the composite material reinforcement efficiency.

V mnoha oborech jsou stále využívána anorganická filtrační media založená na materiálech, jejichž výroba využívá primární suroviny. Jejich výroba je tedy energeticky náročná a v důsledku nákladná a neohleduplná k životnímu prostředí. Cílem této práce je ověřit možnost využití alkalicky aktivovaných materiálů na bázi sekundárních surovin, především vysokopecních strusek (BFS) a popílků z uhelných elektráren (FA), pro výrobu porézních médií schopných v budoucnosti nahradit keramické a jiné anorganické filtry. Výzkum je rozvinut skrze experimentální design založený na výpočetním schématu samostatně vyvinutém s pomocí programu MATLAB. Toto schéma počítá vhodná složení směsí na základě poměrů obsahu nejdůležitějších oxidů ve vstupních surovinách. Tak je zajištěno zohlednění proměnlivého složení vstupních surovin a práce je tím hodnotnější, že její výsledky jsou skrze početní nástroj zohledňující základní oxidové složení surovin zobecnitelné. Zároveň byly však pro srovnání a lepší názornost závislostí vlastností na složení navrhnuty a připraveny i série vzorků založené vždy pouze na jedné ze surovin. Z výsledků vyplývá, že pevnost vzorků z těchto směsí (vytvrzených 24 hodin při 70 °C) ve čtyřbodové ohybové zkoušce dle ČSN EN 12390 5 může přesáhnout 7,6 MPa. Dosažením co možná nejvyšší porozity však zákonitě negativně ovlivňuje pevnost materiálu a výsledný materiál tedy dosahuje pevnosti těsně nad hranicí 6,3 MPa. Výsledky obecně dokazují, že nejvíce je pevnost materiálů ovlivněna poměrem SiO2/Al2O3 a množstvím alkalického aktivátoru. Z výsledků vyplývá, že alkalicky aktivované materiály (AAM) na bázi strusky dosahují i více než dvojnásobné pevnosti analogických materiálů na bázi elektrárenského popílku. Velikost pórů materiálů připravených z tříděných surovin s velikostí zrna od desítek po lehce přes sto mikronů se ve většině případů pohybuje v rozmezí desetin ž jednotek mikronů, v případě výsledného materiálu je to pak přibližně 0,2 mikronu. Celková porozita lisovaných těles se pohybuje těsně pod 40 %, což je v tomto případě téměř dvojnásobek ve srovnání s totožnými materiály na bázi netříděných surovin. Výsledky rovněž ukazují, že materiály na bázi strusky vykazují nižší porozitu než ty na bázi popílku, což je patrně způsobeno rozdílnou morfologií částic obou materiálů – částice strusky jsou nepravidelně hranaté a částice popílku kulaté. V průběhu experimentální činnosti byla pozorována tvorba výkvětů u materiálů na bázi elektrárenských popílků. Pomocí Energo-disperzní spektroskopické analýzy (EDS) byly výkvěty identifikovány jako hydroxid sodný procházející karbonatací za účasti vzdušného CO2. Test permeability vyžadoval, kvůli velmi jemné povaze porézní struktury, přípravu asymetrických filtračních přepážek. Tyto přepážky dosáhli propustnosti 138 L/h.m2.bar pro vodu a 1320 L/h.m2.bar pro vzduch.

This thesis concerns on substitution of blast furnace slag or its part with fly ash in alkali-activated systems based on aluminosilikates. Classic, fluid bottom and fluid filter fly ashes will be tested. The goal is to prepare geopolymer with required mechanical properties, but with maximal admixture of alternative raw materials. In composites with substitutioned slag or its part the thesis focuses mainly on workabilityof fresh mixture, pressure and bending strenght. Use of secondary raw materials has advantages in the economic point of view and it´s friendly to enviroment, too.

Subject of this work is to design a batch of concrete with additives, which are to replace the cement of various doses so as to not adversely affect the properties of fresh and hardened concrete and simultaneously withstand the environment XF.

This thesis deals with the study and design of composite materials based on silica matrix suitable for extreme conditions, eg. for the repair of concrete structures with anticipated increased risk of fire. The theoretical part summarizes basic knowledge concerning the fire resistance of structures and the behavior of the composite system during extreme conditions. Theoretically oriented section also contains information on alkali-activated materials and their use in high temperature environments. Based on the evaluation of the theoretical part of the experiment were designed and tested different types of composite materials with increased content of raw materials from alternative sources. Laboratory research has been based on testing of basic physico-mechanical parameters including phase composition and microstructure of the proposed formulations before and after thermal exposure of 1200 ° C. Also considered was the effect of different cooling conditions.

Alkali activated materials, especially when activated with waterglass, are subjected to substantial drying shrinkage that hinders their broader industrial application. The effect of shrinkage reducing admixtures (SRA), based on poly(propylene glycol), on drying shrinkage of alkali activated blast furnace slag (BFS) mortars was studied. The aim of this thesis is to determine the efficiency of SRA as well as the influence of different type of alkali activator with varying silicate modulus on drying shrinkage characteristics. It was observed that the high amount of alkalis positively influenced the effect of SRA. The higher the amount of alkalis, the lower the drying shrinkage was. It also caused more water to be incorporated in the alkali activated structure and prevent it from evaporation. Thus, the weight change of such mortars was the lowest. Reduced effect of SRA on mechanical strength properties was observed in mortars with low amount of alkalis which was connected with delayed hydration resulting in insufficient amount of created C-S-H gel. The presented thesis further discussed and underlines the role of different kinds of alkali ions as well as their amount on the properties of alkali activated BFS systems.