Master of Arts / Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work / Robert K. Schaeffer / In recent years body modification practices such as the arts of tattooing and body piercing have experienced an increase in popularity. A close examination of previous research conducted on the topic revealed a dichotomous categorization of these practices as either acts of deviance or self-expression. In an effort to add to the research that strives to portray 'body art' as a means of identity formation, the current study took a qualitative approach to the examination of body modification practices and the individuals who participate in them. Throughout 2007, fifteen in-depth interviews were conducted with college-age individuals who had at least one visible piece of 'body art,' and were currently living in or around Manhattan, Kansas. An emphasis was placed on what motivated the individuals to participate in the arts of tattooing and/or body piercing and how they felt the physical alteration of their body had affected their subsequent social interactions and identity. A careful review of the interview transcripts revealed that the respondents had chosen to participate in body modification practices for a variety of reasons. Nine analytical categories were then created in an attempt to explain the key motivations for their participation in these practices and ultimately call into question whether these practices should continue to be viewed as "deviant." The findings also demonstrated that there is still a certain amount of stigma associated with the arts of tattooing and body piercing, especially within the workplace. Although some businesses and organizations require their employees to keep their artwork concealed during business hours, others simply refuse to hire any individual who has a visible piece of 'body art.' Thus, the knowledge gained from the respondents and their experiences provided insight into the thought processes involved in the decision to participate in body modification practices as well as shed light on discriminatory, appearance-based hiring practices.

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Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) has been well established in both clinical and research settings for measurement of bone mineral density (BMD), and is becoming more widely utilized for assessment of body composition. Reliability and validity are essential factors in both applications of this technique; however, neither have been confirmed for the QDR-4500A DXA at Virginia Tech. Therefore, measurements of the whole body (WB), lumbar spine (LS), total proximal femur (TPF) and total forearm (TF) were made in a group of young-adult males and females at two time-points, 5-7 days apart. Significant differences were not found in BMD (g/cm2) at these body sites with repeated measurements by DXA. Furthermore, measures of percent body fat (%BF), lean body mass (LBM), and fat mass (FM) by DXA were reliable. Validity of %BF by DXA was assessed from comparison to single-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Significant differences were not found in measures of %BF by DXA and BIA. A second study investigated the reliability and validity of the QDR-4500A DXA in measurements of distal tibia (DT) BMD. Significant differences were not found between repeated measurements. Validity was established by a significant correlation between WB BMD and DT BMD. A third study examined the influence of navel jewelry on the accuracy of LS DXA measurements. Repeated measurements with a spine phantom revealed that both a navel ring and a barbell produced significantly greater measures of LS BMD compared to the spine phantom alone. Manual correction of navel jewelry did not eliminate BMD inaccuracies. Data from these studies confirmed that the QDR-4500A DXA at Virginia Tech was a reliable and valid device in measurement of WB, LS, TPF, TF and DT BMD, as well as %BF, LBM, and FM. In addition, effects of navel jewelry on LS BMD have been recognized. Further studies investigating the reliability and validity of DT BMD measures as well as effects of different types, gauges, and shapes of body jewelry on BMD measures in human subjects are warranted. / Master of Science