Broadcasting is used in on-demand routing protocols to discover routes in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs). On-demand routing protocols, such as Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) commonly employ pure flooding based broadcasting to discover new routes. In pure flooding, a route request (RREQ) packet is broadcast by the source node and each receiving node rebroadcasts it. This continues until the RREQ packet arrives at the destination node. Pure flooding generates excessive redundant routing traffic that may lead to the broadcast storm problem (BSP) and deteriorate the performance of MANETs significantly. A number of probabilistic broadcasting schemes have been proposed in the literature to address BSP. However, these schemes do not consider thermal noise and interference which exist in real life MANETs, and therefore, do not perform well in real life MANETs. Real life MANETs are noisy and the communication is not error free. This research argues that a broadcast scheme that considers the effects of thermal noise, co-channel interference, and node density in the neighbourhood simultaneously can reduce the broadcast storm problem and enhance the MANET performance. To achieve this, three investigations have been carried out: First, the effect of carrier sensing ranges on on-demand routing protocol such as AODV and their impact on interference; second, effects of thermal noise on on-demand routing protocols and third, evaluation of pure flooding and probabilistic broadcasting schemes under noisy and noiseless conditions. The findings of these investigations are exploited to propose a Channel Adaptive Probabilistic Broadcast (CAPB) scheme to disseminate RREQ packets efficiently. The proposed CAPB scheme determines the probability of rebroadcasting RREQ packets on the fly according to the current Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR) and node density in the neighbourhood. The proposed scheme and two related state of the art (SoA) schemes from the literature are implemented in the standard AODV to replace the pure flooding based broadcast scheme. Ns-2 simulation results show that the proposed CAPB scheme outperforms the other schemes in terms of routing overhead, average end-to-end delay, throughput and energy consumption.

Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) facilitates the creation of dynamic reconfigurable networks, without centralized infrastructure. MANET routing protocols have to face high challenges like link instability, node mobility, frequently changing topologies and energy consumption of node, due to these challenges routing becomes one of the core issues in MANETs. This Thesis mainly focuses on the reactive routing protocol such as Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol. Reliable and Efficient Reactive Routing Protocol (RERRP) for MANET has been proposed to reduce the link breakages between the moving nodes. This scheme selects a reliable route using Reliability Factor (RF); the RF considers Route Expiration Time and Hop Count to select a routing path with high reliability and have less number of hops. The simulation result shows that RERRP outperforms AODV and enhance the packet delivery fraction (PDF) by around 6% and reduces the network routing load (NRL) by around 30%. Broadcasting in MANET could cause serious redundancy, contention, and collision of the packets. A scheme, Effective Broadcast Control Routing Protocol (EBCRP) has been proposed for the controlling of broadcast storm problem in a MANET. The EBCRP is mainly selects the reliable node while controlling the redundant re-broadcast of the route request packet. The proposed algorithm EBCRP is an on-demand routing protocol, therefore AODV route discovery mechanism was selected as the base of this scheme. The analysis of the performance of EBCRP has revealed that the EBCRP have controlled the routing overhead significantly, reduces it around 70% and enhance the packet delivery by 13% as compared to AODV. An Energy Sensible and Route Stability Based Routing Protocol (ESRSBR) have also been proposed that mainly focuses on increasing the network lifetime with better packet delivery. The ESRSBR supports those nodes to participate in the data transfer that have more residual energy related to their neighbour nodes. The proposed protocol also keeps track of the stability of the links between the nodes. Finally, the ESRSBR selects those routes which consist of nodes that have more residual energy and have stable links. The comparative analysis of ESRSBR with AODV and recently proposed routing protocol called Link Stability and Energy Aware (LSEA) routing protocol revealed that the proposed protocol ESRSBR has a significantly affect the network lifetime, increases it around 10% and 13% as compared to LSEA and AODV protocols respectively. The ESRSBR also decreases the routing overhead by 22% over LSEA and by 38% over AODV.

藉由許多配備無線通訊能力的嵌入式系統裝置，如筆記型電腦、行動電話、PDA、車用導航系統及車用電腦等，不同的裝置透過無線通訊的能力，將彼此連接，構成行動隨意網路 (Mobile Ad Hoc Network) 的環境。這些網路上的節點可能任意且快速移動，隨時改變既有網路拓樸，造成原先已經建立好的路由中斷。採用被動式路由協定 (Reactive Routing Protocol) 的路由重建，往往增加了資料傳送的延遲及重建路由時所需要大量路由發現 (Route Discovery) 的封包，造成廣播風暴 (Broadcast Storm)，嚴重影響整個網路的效能。 在論文中，我們提出一個利用節點的移動方向做為選擇適當中繼節點 (Relay Node) 的策略，稱之為Directive Location-Aided Routing，簡稱DLAR。DLAR將節點的移動方向因素加入於既有的LAR中做為選擇中繼節點的考量。中繼節點的決定，需要符合與來源節點相同的移動方向，目的是維持較長的連線時間，且讓路由中斷的位置靠近目的節點，並使用AODV的Local Repair的機制做為路由搜尋的協定，加速路由的恢復。 實驗模擬結果顯示，DLAR與AODV、DSR及LAR比較，在減少找尋路由路徑時所需的路由請求封包、降低點對點 (End -To-End) 的延遲及資料成功送達率，都有較佳的表現。在網路中節點數較多時，DLAR在封包送達率能有6%– 55%的改善，降低搜尋及維持路由時需要的控制封包量達40%以上，降低廣播風暴發生的機率， DLAR也同時在End-to-End Delay的表現較之於其他路由機制，有20%以上的改善。 / In MANET the nodes may move fast and unpredictable, this may cause the original set up route well broken. Adopt those Reactive Routing Protocols may not only cause seriously data delivery delay but also produce a large number of control packages (RREQ) thus reducing network capacity. This is known as Broadcast Storm Problem. In this thesis, we proposed a routing protocol, Directive Location-Aided Routing (DLAR), that helps to choose appropriate relay nodes (intermediate nodes) in MANET. DLAR considers the node movement direction factor in deciding a stable route. Relay node is considered to be the same movement direction as source node. The goal is to maintain longer path lifetime, and make the broken very close to the destination node. DLAR adopts AODV to discovery route and accelerate the route recovery using Local Repair mechanism. Simulations show that as the network loading is high, DLAR can increase the packet delivery ratio by 6% ~ 55 % and increase the bandwidth utility by 40%, reduce the largely broadcast storm probability, and reduce end-to-end delay by 20%.

Os veículos aéreos não tripulados (VANTs) vêm apresentando destaque crescente no setor aeronáutico mundial, tanto no desenvolvimento dos mesmos quanto nas diferentes aplicações desses veículos, devido ao seu grande potencial de utilização. Em muitas aplicações, a utilização de múltiplos VANTs apresenta várias vantagens sobre um VANT sozinho. No entanto, o agrupamento pode experimentar problemas inerentes à comunicação sem fio, podendo originar novos problemas como inviabilizar a coordenação e a execução cooperativa de uma missão, por exemplo. Em um cenário não colaborativo, VANTs com algum nível de autonomia e que partilhem do mesmo espaço aéreo também deverão ser capazes de trocar informações entre si, principalmente informações sobre posicionamento e rota de voo, e também estarão suscetíveis aos distúrbios da comunicação sem fio. Para balancear as vantagens e as desvantagens, esses robôs precisarão se comunicar cientes das restrições e utilizando a rede de modo otimizado, por meio da aplicação de algoritmos que equilibrem adequadamente técnicas de difusão de informações e técnicas de mitigação de retransmissões. Neste projeto de doutorado foi feita a investigação sobre o método de disseminação de dados, por meio de broadcasting, em uma rede móvel ad hoc entre VANTs, denominada Flying Ad hoc Networks (FANETs). FANETs são um novo paradigma que pode superar as restrições de missões de um único VANT. As FANETs são compostas por vários VANTs que cooperam para realizar alguma missão crítica (por exemplo, uma missão de busca e resgate). Para manter a coordenação, todos os VANTs devem continuamente enviar ou retransmitir mensagens através do canal sem fio para garantir que todos os membros da rede saibam o estado da rede. Geralmente, a troca de dados necessários para manter a sincronização da missão exige o uso de broadcast para que todos os membros da rede possam recebê-los. No entanto, quando essa troca de mensagens é feita arbitrariamente, isso pode causar o problema da tempestade de broadcast (BSP), levando o meio sem fio a um estado inoperante. Apesar de alguns esforços relatados na literatura para o provimento de técnicas gerais de mitigação do problema BSP, o desafio de agregar novas informações ou conhecimento a receptores que estejam voando, ao invés de apenas espalhar os dados na rede, tem recebido menos atenção. Nesta tese, além de demonstrar que o problema BSP intensifica a contenção de rede à medida que o número de VANTs aumenta, também foi criado um método que se prova mais eficiente que os existentes até então. Tal técnica, denominada de Algoritmo Baseado em Vizinhança Dinâmica para o Problema da Tempestade de Broadcast (DNA-BSP), foi desenvolvida e validada com base em experimentos de mundo real e em simulações computacionais. Ele pode mitigar o problema BSP, que é um desafio real nas FANETs, reduzindo a redundância de mensagens em mais de 98% e tornando a entrega de mensagens 99,5% mais rápida do que no cenário de flooding, superando as técnicas gerais de mitigação do BSP quando aplicado em FANETs. Os resultados detalhados neste texto também poderão orientar trabalhos futuros ao fornecer informações úteis para o planejamento e otimização de redes ad hoc móveis para VANTs. / Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been showing increasing notoriety in the global aviation scene, both on their development and on the different applications for these vehicles, due to their high potential of use. In many applications, using multiple UAVs has several advantages over a single UAV. However, a cluster of UAVs may experience issues inherent to wireless communication, which may lead to new complications such as making mission coordination and cooperative execution impractible. In a non-collaborative scenario, UAVs with some level of autonomy which share the same airspace should also be able to exchange information among themselves, especially positioning and flight path information, and may also be susceptible to wireless communication disturbances. These robots have to use the network fairly and should communicate under restrictions, appropriately adjusting techniques that disseminate information and that mitigate broadcasts, in order to balance the advantages and disadvantages of being a group. This Ph.D. research investigates how broadcasting is used to disseminate data throughout ad hoc mobile networks between UAVs called Flying Ad hoc Networks (FANETs). FANETs are a new paradigm that can overcome the mission constraints of single UAVs. FANETs are composed of several UAVs that cooperate to accomplish a critical mission (e.g., hazardous area monitoring). Aiming to maintain UAVs coordination, all aircraft must continuously retransmit or relay messages through the wireless channel to assure that every member knows the FANET status. However, when this message exchange is done blindly, it may cause the broadcast storm problem (BSP), leading the wireless medium to a dysfunctional state. Despite some efforts reported in the literature for providing general techniques to mitigate the broadcast storm problem, the challenge of aggregating new information or knowledge to receivers, instead of just spreading the information in the network, has received less attention. In this research, it has been proved that the broadcast storm problem causes network contention as the number of UAVs increases, and the innovative Dynamic Neighborhood-based Algorithm for the Broadcast Storm Problem (DNA-BSP) has been provided as a countermeasure, which was developed and validated based on computer simulations and outdoor experiments. It can mitigate the broadcast storm problem, which is a real challenge in FANETs, reducing message redundancy in more than 98%, and making message delivery 99,5% faster than in flooding scenario, outperforming classical broadcast storm mitigation techniques when applied in FANETs. Our detailed results can also guide future researches and provide useful insights for engineers planning and optimizing mission-critical mobile ad hoc network with support of UAVs.

Dans le cadre des systèmes de transport intelligents (STI), les véhicules peuvent avoir beaucoup de capteurs (caméras, lidars, radars, etc.) et d’applications (évitement des collisions, surveillance du trafic, etc.) générant des données. Ils représentent alors une source d’information importante. Les applications locales peuvent augmenter considérablement leur efficacité en partageant une telle information au sein du réseau. La précision des données, la confiance et la pertinence peuvent être vérifiées lors de la réception de données provenant d’autres nœuds. Par conséquent, nous croyons qu’une question importante à répondre dans ce contexte est: “Comment partager efficacement les données dans un tel environnement?” Le partage de données est une tâche complexe dans les réseaux dynamiques. De nombreuses problèmes telles que les connexions intermittentes, la variation de la densité du réseau et la congestion du médium de communication se posent. Une approche habituelle pour gérer ces problèmes est basée sur des processus périodiques. En effet, un message envoyé plusieurs fois peut atteindre sa destination même avec des connexions intermittentes et des réseaux à faible densité. Néanmoins, dans les réseaux à haute densité, ils peuvent entraîner une congestion du médium de communication. Dans cette thèse, nous abordons le problème du partage de données dans des réseaux dynamiques en nous appuyant sur des horizons de pertinence. Un horizon est défini comme une zone dans laquelle une information devrait être reçue. Nous commençons par nous concentrer sur le partage de données au sein des voisins directs (à 1 saut de distance). Ensuite, nous proposons une solution pour construire une carte des voisins, centrée sur le nœud ego, dans un horizon à n sauts. Enfin, nous relâchons la définition de l’horizon pour la définir de façon dynamique, où différents éléments de données peuvent atteindre des distances différentes (sauts). En ce qui concerne la solution pour les horizons à 1 saut, notre technique adaptative prend en compte la dynamique des nœuds et la charge du réseau. Afin d’assurer une diffusion efficace des données dans différents scénarios, la fréquence d’envoi des messages est définie en fonction des mouvements des véhicules et d’une estimation du taux de perte du réseau. Après, nous nous concentrons sur la carte des voisins jusqu’à n sauts de distance. Comme la communication avec des nœuds éloignés apporte des problèmes supplémentaires (actions de transfert, retards plus importants, informations périmées), une évaluation de confiance des nœuds identifiés et une estimation de fiabilité du chemin vers chaque voisin sont ajoutées à la carte. Au lieu d’exécuter des processus de diffusion séparés, notre troisième contribution porte sur une stratégie de coopération dont l’objectif principal est de diffuser des données tout en satisfaisant la plupart des nœuds. À cette fin, une trame unique est transmise de nœud en nœud. Sa charge utile est mise à jour localement afin qu’elle contienne les éléments de données les plus pertinents en fonction de certains critères (par exemple, urgence, pertinence). Une telle stratégie définit ainsi un horizon centré sur les données. Nous validons nos propositions au moyen d’émulations de réseaux réalistes. De toutes nos études et des résultats obtenus, nous pouvons affirmer que notre approche apporte des perspectives intéressantes pour le partage de données dans des réseaux dynamiques comme les VANET. / In the context of Intelligent Transportation Systems - ITS, vehicles may have a lot of sensors (e.g. cameras, lidars, radars) and applications (collision avoidance, traffic monitoring, etc.) generating data. They represent then an important source of information. Local applications can significantly increase their effectiveness by sharing such an information within the network. Data accuracy, confidence and pertinence can be verified when receiving data from other nodes. Therefore, we believe that an important question to answer in this context is: “How to efficiently share data within such an environment?” Data sharing is a complex task in dynamic networks. Many concerns like intermittent connections, network density variation and communication spectrum congestion arise. A usual approach to handle these problems is based on periodic processes. Indeed, a message sent many times can reach its destination even with intermittent connections and low density networks. Nevertheless, within high density networks, they may lead to communication spectrum scarcity. In this thesis we address the problem of data sharing in dynamic networks by relying in so-called horizons of pertinence. A horizon is defined as an area within which an information is expected to be received. We start focusing on data sharing within direct neighbors (at 1-hop of distance). Then we propose a solution to construct a map of neighbors, centered in the ego-node, within a horizon of n-hops. Finally, we relax the horizon definition to a dynamic defined one where different data items may reach different distances (hops). Regarding the solution for 1-hop horizons, our adaptive technique takes into account nodes’ dynamics and network load. In order to ensure an effective data dissemination in different scenarios, the sending messages frequency is defined according to vehicles movements and an estimation of the network loss rate. Following, we focus on the map of neighbors up to n-hops of distance. As communicationwith distant nodes brings additional concerns (forwarding actions, larger delays, out-of-date information), a trust evaluation of identified nodes and a reliability estimation of the multi-hop path to each neighbor is added to the map. Instead of running separated disseminating processes, our third contribution deals with a cooperative strategy with the main goal of disseminating data while satisfying most of the nodes. For this purpose a unique frame is forwarded from node to node. Its payload is locally updated so that it contains the most relevant data items according to some criteria (e.g. urgency, relevance). Such a strategy defines thus a data-centered horizon. We validate our proposals by means of realistic network emulations. From all our studies and achieved results we can state that our approach brings interesting insights for data sharing in dynamic networks like VANETs.

La convergencia de las telecomunicaciones, la informática, la tecnología inalámbrica y los sistemas de transporte, va a facilitar que nuestras carreteras y autopistas nos sirvan tanto como plataforma de transporte, como de comunicaciones. Estos cambios van a revolucionar completamente cómo y cuándo vamos a acceder a determinados servicios, comunicarnos, viajar, entretenernos, y navegar, en un futuro muy cercano. Las redes vehiculares ad hoc (vehicular ad hoc networks VANETs) son redes de comunicación inalámbricas que no requieren de ningún tipo de infraestructura, y que permiten la comunicación y conducción cooperativa entre los vehículos en la carretera. Los vehículos actúan como nodos de comunicación y transmisores, formando redes dinámicas junto a otros vehículos cercanos en entornos urbanos y autopistas. Las características especiales de las redes vehiculares favorecen el desarrollo de servicios y aplicaciones atractivas y desafiantes. En esta tesis nos centramos en las aplicaciones relacionadas con la seguridad. Específicamente, desarrollamos y evaluamos un novedoso protocol que mejora la seguridad en las carreteras. Nuestra propuesta combina el uso de información de la localización de los vehículos y las características del mapa del escenario, para mejorar la diseminación de los mensajes de alerta. En las aplicaciones de seguridad para redes vehiculares, nuestra propuesta permite reducir el problema de las tormentas de difusión, mientras que se mantiene una alta efectividad en la diseminación de los mensajes hacia los vehículos cercanos. Debido a que desplegar y evaluar redes VANET supone un gran coste y una tarea dura, la metodología basada en la simulación se muestra como una metodología alternativa a la implementación real. A diferencia de otros trabajos previos, con el fin de evaluar nuestra propuesta en un entorno realista, en nuestras simulaciones tenemos muy en cuenta tanto la movilidad de los vehículos, como la transmisión de radio en entornos urbanos, especialmente cuando los edificios interfieren en la propagación de la señal de radio. Con este propósito, desarrollamos herramientas para la simulación de VANETs más precisas y realistas, mejorando tanto la modelización de la propagación de radio, como la movilidad de los vehículos, obteniendo una solución que permite integrar mapas reales en el entorno de simulación. Finalmente, evaluamos las prestaciones de nuestro protocolo propuesto haciendo uso de nuestra plataforma de simulación mejorada, evidenciando la importancia del uso de un entorno de simulación adecuado para conseguir resultados más realistas y poder obtener conclusiones más significativas. / Martínez Domínguez, FJ. (2010). Improving Vehicular ad hoc Network Protocols to Support Safety Applications in Realistic Scenarios [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/9195