Univ., Diss., 2005--Giessen

Brucella abortus is a bacterial species that infects cattle, elk, and bison herds worldwide and is a causative agent of brucellosis. B. abortus is a common form of zoonosis, as incidental spillover into the human population results in millions of infections annually. Current treatment options are limited to culling infected animals and treating humans with a rigorous antibiotic regimen, which still results in up to a 30% relapse rate. Detection of the pathogen is difficult due to the replicative niche residing within the host's immune cells, specifically macrophages and dendritic cells. Numerous small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) were found to be expressed by B. abortus, and it was hypothesized that they may be important for virulence. One sRNA, when deleted, was shown to be linked to outer membrane stress resistance and was named MssR (membrane sensitivity sRNA). When the ΔmssR strain was tested in both macrophage and mouse models of infection, there were no virulence defects. Additionally, proteomic and transcriptomic studies of the ΔmssR strain showed very few dysregulated targets. Expression of mssR was tested under numerous biologically relevant conditions, and it was shown to be expressed significantly more during exponential phase of growth, compared to stationary phase. Initial microscopical analysis of mutant cells after treatment with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS_ did not reveal any morphological differences. It is unknown what contributes to the observed phenotypes and additional experiments are required to determine what is causing the perturbations in the outer membrane of the ΔmssR strain. / Master of Science / Brucella abortus is a bacterial species that causes the disease brucellosis in cattle and humans worldwide. To understand how B. abortus establishes infection, we are studying how the bacteria control the expression of genes during the process of infection. One method of bacterial gene regulation is the use of small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs). These small transcripts are similar to mRNAs but are shorter in length and typically do not encode for a protein. One such sRNA in B. abortus was shown to be linked to sensitivity to outer membrane stress and was named Membrane Sensitivity sRNA (MssR). After engineering a strain of B. abortus that does not produce MssR, there were no differences in the ability of the bacteria to infect macrophages or mice. Additionally, there were no noticable differences in the structure of the bacterial cells. When sRNAs regulate gene expression, differences can be seen at the mRNA and protein levels when the sRNAs are deleted. Very few targets were found be dysregulated at the transcript and protein level within the ΔmssR mutant. It is unknown what is causing the mutant to be more sensitive to outer membrane perturbations and additional tests are necessary to determine how MssR is linked to this phenotype.

For many years bovine brucellosis was a zoonosis endemic in large parts of the world. While it is still endemic in some parts, such as the Middle East or India, several countries such as Australia and Canada have successfully eradicated brucellosis in cattle by applying vaccines, improving the hygienic standards in cattle breeding, and slaughtering or quarantining infected animals. The large economical impact of bovine brucellosis and its virulence for humans, coming in direct contact to fluid discharges from infected animals, makes the eradication of bovine brucellosis important to achieve. To achieve this goal several vaccines have been developed in the past decades. Today the two most commonly used vaccines are Brucella abortus vaccine strain 19 and strain RB51. Both vaccines have been shown to be effective, but the mechanisms of immune responses following vaccination with either of the vaccines are not understood yet. In this thesis we analyze the immunological data obtained through vaccination with the two strains using mathematical modeling. We first design a measure that allows us to separate the subjects into good and bad responders. Then we investigate differences in the immune responses following vaccination with strain 19 or strain RB51 and boosting with strain RB51. We develop a mathematical model of immune responses that accounts for formation of antagonistic pro and anti-inflammatory and memory cells. We show that different characteristics of pro-inflammatory cell development and activity have an impact on the number of memory cells obtained after vaccination. / Master of Science

Brucellosis is a chronic, recurring disease caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus, along with other species of the genus Brucella, and is one of the most common bacterial zoonosis worldwide. The bacteria preferentially infect and reside within host macrophages, causing an undulant fever, joint pain, and other flu-like symptoms, in addition to more severe problems like hepatosplenomegaly and endocarditis. Brucella infection is most often acquired via inhalation through the respiratory route, or via consumption of unpasteurized dairy products. Although ingestion is a major route of infection, the transcriptional response of B. abortus during oral infection remains poorly characterized. In this project, RNA sequencing was used to discover genes with the greatest transcriptional changes in B. abortus subjected to deoxycholate, a host bile acid encountered by bacteria during oral infection. Gene deletion strains of B. abortus were then created and tested for susceptibility to pH and bile acid stress, along with their ability to invade and replicate within macrophages. If the genes of interest are important for the oral infection process, B. abortus strains lacking these genes will likely be more susceptible to pH and deoxycholate stress and may exhibit attenuation in the macrophage infection model. Determination of genes important for the oral infection process would further elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which B. abortus invades the host, and could help lead to future treatments and novel therapeutics. / Master of Science

Bacillus anthracis is a facultative extracellular bacterial pathogen that causes cutaneous, gastrointestinal or respiratory disease in many vertebrates, including humans. Commercially available anthrax vaccines for immunization of humans are known to provide protection of limited duration and may not protect against the respiratory form of the disease. Commercially available live vaccines for animals have been shown to cause disease in certain species. Brucella abortus is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes chronic infection in animals and humans. As with other intracellular pathogens, cell mediated immune responses (CMI) are crucial in affording protection against brucellosis. B. abortus strain RB51 has been shown to be useful in eliciting protective CMI and antibody responses against Brucella in cattle and other animal species. Since the protective antigen (PA) of B. anthracis is known to induce antibodies, the pag gene encoding PA was expressed in B. abortus RB51, producing a dual vaccine to protect against both brucellosis and anthrax. In a previous study, the entire pag gene was expressed in strain RB51 and following immunization the vaccine induced antibodies against PA in A/J mice. However, PA stability and protective efficacy were less than desirable as only 1/6 were protected. The studies in this dissertation involved synthesizing a gene corresponding to domain 4 (PA4) of the pag gene utilizing the native codon usage of Brucella. The PA4 domain was fused to Brucella signal sequences of Brucella 18kDa protein, superoxide dismutase or no signal sequence to localize the PA4 to the outside cell envelope, periplasmic space or cytosol respectively. Comparisons of the expression level and stability of the native and synthetic PA4 in B. abortus strain RB51 were assessed by immunoblot. The protective efficacy of PA4 expressed in Brucella was assessed by immunization and protection studies in A/J mice against a live challenge with either B. abortus or B. anthracis Sterne spores. ELISA and western blot indicate the induction of PA specific antibodies by these recombinant strain RB51 vaccine constructs. Results based on subisotype antibody ELISA (IgG, IgG1, IgG2a and IgM) and CMI assays (cytokine ELISA of IL-4 and INF-g, and LPA) suggest a Th1 based immune response to strain RB51 and PA. B. abortus strain RB51 expressing PA4 fused to the signal sequence of Brucella 18kDa protein was able to induce 50% protection, while strain RB51 expressing PA4 with no signal sequence gave 17% protection against B. anthracis Stern spore challenge. Mice were boosted with an intraperitoneal injection of purified PA after an initial immunization with Brucella vaccine candidates, sterile saline or pure PA. Protection assessed by live challenge with B. anthracis Sterne spores increased following boosting with PA in 4 cases. Immunization with purified PA, and 3 strain RB51/PA vaccines and a PA boost gave protection against a spore challenge ranging from partial to full. This study suggests that additional work is needed to define the antigens of B. anthracis involved in the induction of specific CMI. / Ph. D.

Espécies de Brucella são causadoras da brucelose, uma das doenças zoonóticas mais difundidas em todo o mundo, que é causa aborto em animais domésticos e infecção potencialmente debilitante em humanos. Apesar da identificação de diferentes espécies dentro do gênero, baseada na diferença de hospedeiro e patogenicidade, o gênero tem sido descrito como geneticamente homogêneo. Técnicas moleculares têm sido empregadas com o intuito de diferenciar e tipificar estes microrganismos, sendo que a abordagem mais promissora visa a identificação de polimorfismos entre as espécies e biovares. O objetivo do trabalho foi analisar o perfil genético de diferentes cepas de B. abortus obtidos a partir da técnica de SE-AFLP a fim de determinar a sequência dos fragmentos obtidos e genes que poderiam estar presentes nos fragmentos selecionados e compará-las com bancos de genes e de proteínas de procariotos. Foram selecionados 19 fragmentos, que foram purificados, sequenciados e, as sequências obtidas, submetidas a diversas ferramentas de bioinformática visando sua caracterização e identificação. Nenhum dos fragmentos de nucleotídeos apresentou similaridade entre si e/ou com outra sequência já conhecida de outros microrganismos, inclusive com sequências conhecidas do gênero Brucella. Das 114 proteínas hipotéticas geradas pela tradução destas sequências genômicas 57% (65 sequências) apresentaram baixo grau de similaridade com proteínas descritas e disponíveis em BLASTp (proteínas não-redundantes e SwissProt), variando entre 29 e 43. Do total de proteínas similares 85% foram atribuídas e proteínas funcionais e 14% a proteínas hipotéticas. Essas novas sequências deverão ser utilizadas em outros trabalhos visando verificar sua abrangência e especificidade dentro das espécies e biovares de Brucella. / Brucella species are the cause of brucellosis, one of the most widespread zoonotic diseases around the world, which is cause abortion in domestic animals and potentially debilitating infection in humans. Despite the identification of different species within the genus, based on the difference of host and pathogenicity, the genre has been described as genetically homogeneous. Molecular techniques have been employed in order to differentiate and classify these organisms, and the most promising approach aims to identify polymorphisms between species and biovars. The objective of this study was to analyze the genetic profile of different strains of B. abortus obtained by the technique of SE-AFLP to determine the sequence of the fragments obtained and genes that may be present in the selected fragments and compare them to databases of genes and proteins in prokaryotes. We selected 19 fragments that were purified, sequenced and the sequences obtained, subject to several bioinformatics tools aiming at its characterization and identification. None of the fragments showed nucleotide similarity between themselves and / or other sequence already known from other organisms, including known sequences of the genus Brucella. Of the 114 hypothetical proteins generated by translation of genomic sequences 57% (65 sequences) showed low level of similarity to proteins described and available in blastp (protein non-redundant and SwissProt), ranging between 29 and 43. Of the proteins similar 85% were attributed to functional proteins and 14% to hypothetical proteins. These new sequences should be used in other studies to verify its completeness and specificity within the species and biovars of Brucella.

Espécies de Brucella são causadoras da brucelose, uma das doenças zoonóticas mais difundidas em todo o mundo, que é causa aborto em animais domésticos e infecção potencialmente debilitante em humanos. Apesar da identificação de diferentes espécies dentro do gênero, baseada na diferença de hospedeiro e patogenicidade, o gênero tem sido descrito como geneticamente homogêneo. Técnicas moleculares têm sido empregadas com o intuito de diferenciar e tipificar estes microrganismos, sendo que a abordagem mais promissora visa a identificação de polimorfismos entre as espécies e biovares. O objetivo do trabalho foi analisar o perfil genético de diferentes cepas de B. abortus obtidos a partir da técnica de SE-AFLP a fim de determinar a sequência dos fragmentos obtidos e genes que poderiam estar presentes nos fragmentos selecionados e compará-las com bancos de genes e de proteínas de procariotos. Foram selecionados 19 fragmentos, que foram purificados, sequenciados e, as sequências obtidas, submetidas a diversas ferramentas de bioinformática visando sua caracterização e identificação. Nenhum dos fragmentos de nucleotídeos apresentou similaridade entre si e/ou com outra sequência já conhecida de outros microrganismos, inclusive com sequências conhecidas do gênero Brucella. Das 114 proteínas hipotéticas geradas pela tradução destas sequências genômicas 57% (65 sequências) apresentaram baixo grau de similaridade com proteínas descritas e disponíveis em BLASTp (proteínas não-redundantes e SwissProt), variando entre 29 e 43. Do total de proteínas similares 85% foram atribuídas e proteínas funcionais e 14% a proteínas hipotéticas. Essas novas sequências deverão ser utilizadas em outros trabalhos visando verificar sua abrangência e especificidade dentro das espécies e biovares de Brucella. / Brucella species are the cause of brucellosis, one of the most widespread zoonotic diseases around the world, which is cause abortion in domestic animals and potentially debilitating infection in humans. Despite the identification of different species within the genus, based on the difference of host and pathogenicity, the genre has been described as genetically homogeneous. Molecular techniques have been employed in order to differentiate and classify these organisms, and the most promising approach aims to identify polymorphisms between species and biovars. The objective of this study was to analyze the genetic profile of different strains of B. abortus obtained by the technique of SE-AFLP to determine the sequence of the fragments obtained and genes that may be present in the selected fragments and compare them to databases of genes and proteins in prokaryotes. We selected 19 fragments that were purified, sequenced and the sequences obtained, subject to several bioinformatics tools aiming at its characterization and identification. None of the fragments showed nucleotide similarity between themselves and / or other sequence already known from other organisms, including known sequences of the genus Brucella. Of the 114 hypothetical proteins generated by translation of genomic sequences 57% (65 sequences) showed low level of similarity to proteins described and available in blastp (protein non-redundant and SwissProt), ranging between 29 and 43. Of the proteins similar 85% were attributed to functional proteins and 14% to hypothetical proteins. These new sequences should be used in other studies to verify its completeness and specificity within the species and biovars of Brucella.

Espécies de Brucella são causadoras da brucelose, uma das doenças zoonóticas mais difundidas em todo o mundo, que é causa aborto em animais domésticos e infecção potencialmente debilitante em humanos. Apesar da identificação de diferentes espécies dentro do gênero, baseada na diferença de hospedeiro e patogenicidade, o gênero tem sido descrito como geneticamente homogêneo. Técnicas moleculares têm sido empregadas com o intuito de diferenciar e tipificar estes microrganismos, sendo que a abordagem mais promissora visa a identificação de polimorfismos entre as espécies e biovares. O objetivo do trabalho foi analisar o perfil genético de diferentes cepas de B. abortus obtidos a partir da técnica de SE-AFLP a fim de determinar a sequência dos fragmentos obtidos e genes que poderiam estar presentes nos fragmentos selecionados e compará-las com bancos de genes e de proteínas de procariotos. Foram selecionados 19 fragmentos, que foram purificados, sequenciados e, as sequências obtidas, submetidas a diversas ferramentas de bioinformática visando sua caracterização e identificação. Nenhum dos fragmentos de nucleotídeos apresentou similaridade entre si e/ou com outra sequência já conhecida de outros microrganismos, inclusive com sequências conhecidas do gênero Brucella. Das 114 proteínas hipotéticas geradas pela tradução destas sequências genômicas 57% (65 sequências) apresentaram baixo grau de similaridade com proteínas descritas e disponíveis em BLASTp (proteínas não-redundantes e SwissProt), variando entre 29 e 43. Do total de proteínas similares 85% foram atribuídas e proteínas funcionais e 14% a proteínas hipotéticas. Essas novas sequências deverão ser utilizadas em outros trabalhos visando verificar sua abrangência e especificidade dentro das espécies e biovares de Brucella. / Brucella species are the cause of brucellosis, one of the most widespread zoonotic diseases around the world, which is cause abortion in domestic animals and potentially debilitating infection in humans. Despite the identification of different species within the genus, based on the difference of host and pathogenicity, the genre has been described as genetically homogeneous. Molecular techniques have been employed in order to differentiate and classify these organisms, and the most promising approach aims to identify polymorphisms between species and biovars. The objective of this study was to analyze the genetic profile of different strains of B. abortus obtained by the technique of SE-AFLP to determine the sequence of the fragments obtained and genes that may be present in the selected fragments and compare them to databases of genes and proteins in prokaryotes. We selected 19 fragments that were purified, sequenced and the sequences obtained, subject to several bioinformatics tools aiming at its characterization and identification. None of the fragments showed nucleotide similarity between themselves and / or other sequence already known from other organisms, including known sequences of the genus Brucella. Of the 114 hypothetical proteins generated by translation of genomic sequences 57% (65 sequences) showed low level of similarity to proteins described and available in blastp (protein non-redundant and SwissProt), ranging between 29 and 43. Of the proteins similar 85% were attributed to functional proteins and 14% to hypothetical proteins. These new sequences should be used in other studies to verify its completeness and specificity within the species and biovars of Brucella.

Brucellosis is the most common zoonotic disease worldwide. The intracellular localization of Brucella hinders the action of drugs that poorly cross cell membrane barriers. Additionally, when the immune response fails to clear the infection, chronic brucellosis ensues that becomes more challenging to treat with antibiotics. Therefore, two approaches, intracellular drug delivery and immunostimulation, have been explored in this dissertation, with an aim to develop a better therapeutic against Brucella infection in mice. First, to overcome the cell membrane barriers, drug loaded nanoparticles were tested to treat B. melitensis infection in mice. Gentamicin loaded block-ionomer complexes (BICs) and magnetite block-ionomer complexes (MBICs) were tested in vitro and along with clusters of MBICs (MBIClusters) were tested in vivo as tools to deliver gentamicin intracellularly. While these complexes showed very high efficacy compared to free gentamicin against Brucella in macrophage cell culture, they failed to show similar efficacies in mice. Histopathological examination of kidneys from mice treated with MBICs or MBIClusters showed deposition of brown pigment-laden macrophages in peri-renal adipose tissue and the pigment was confirmed as MBICs or MBIClusters based on special staining for iron. Additionally, it was found that doxycycline-gentamicin (DG) treatment results in better clearance of Brucella from infected mice compared to doxycycline alone. Secondly, two vaccine candidates, irradiated B. neotomae (IBN) and outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), were tested as immunostimulants to treat chronic B. melitensis infection in mice in combination with antibiotics. The non-ionic block co-polymer Pluronic P85, when mixed with OMVs as an adjuvant showed significantly higher protection against B. melitensis challenge in vaccinated mice compared to those vaccinated with OMVs alone. When tested as immunostimulants, there was no additive effect of vaccines and antibiotics on Brucella clearance from mice. However, IBN enhanced the production of IFN-γ while OMVs were associated with enhanced antibody production. This enhancement in the immune system resulted in the control of Brucella growth after the end of treatment. When given without antibiotics, vaccine alone failed to clear any Brucella from infected mice. The use of these vaccine candidates in combination with antibiotics shows a potential to prevent relapses in cases of brucellosis. / Ph. D.

Η βρουκέλλα, ένα προαιρετικώς ενδοκυττάριο βακτήριο που προκαλεί μελιταίο πυρετό, ενδοκαρδίτιδα, αρθρίτιδα και οστεομυελίτιδα στους ανθρώπους, εγκαθιστά χρόνιες λοιμώξεις μολύνοντας, επιβιώνοντας και πολλαπλασιαζόμενη σε διαφόρους τύπους κυττάρων, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των μονοκυττάρων και των δενδριτικών κυττάρων. Οι B. abortus, B. melitensis και B. suis είναι τα κύρια είδη που προκαλούν βρουκέλλωση στους ανθρώπους και η B. melitensis προκαλεί την πλειονότητα των περιστατικών και την πιο βαριά συμπτωματολογία. Η ικανότητα της βρουκέλλας να παραμένει στα μολυσμένα κύτταρα εξαρτάται από την ιδιότητά της να αποφεύγει ή να αλληλεπιδρά με στοιχεία των απαντήσεων της φυσικής και επίκτητης ανοσίας. Η αρχική άμυνα του ξενιστή έναντι βακτηριακών λοιμώξεων διεγείρεται από PAMP, που αναγνωρίζονται από τον ξενιστή. Πληθώρα αποδείξεων εμπλέκουν διαφορετικά μέλη της οικογένειας των TLR στην αναγνώριση της βρουκέλλας και/ή στην εκκαθάριση της λοιμώξεως. Ένας απαραίτητος κλάδος των σηματοδοτικών οδών που ξεκινά από τους TLR είναι η οικογένεια των MAP κινασών. Οι MAP κινάσες διαμεσολαβούν κυτταρικές απαντήσεις σε ποικιλία εξωτερικών διεγέρσεων, όπως το φυσικό στρες, οι φλεγμονώδεις κυτταροκίνες, οι αυξητικοί παράγοντες και συστατικά των βακτηρίων. Αντικείμενο της μελέτης ήταν η διερεύνηση της ενορχήστρωσης των απαντήσεων της φυσικής ανοσίας έναντι ζωντανών παθογόνων κλινικών στελεχών B. melitensis σε ανθρώπινα μονοκύτταρα από τις MAP κινάσες. Αρχικά απεδείχθη ότι η βρουκέλλα προκάλεσε ισχυρή προφλεγμονώδη απάντηση με αποτέλεσμα την απελευθέρωση υψηλών επιπέδων IL-1β, IL-6 και TNF-α και ταυτοχρόνως πυροδότησε έντονη, μικρής διαρκείας αντιφλεγμονώδη απάντηση. Δηλαδή, η ζωντανή βρουκέλλα δεν αποφεύγει την αρχική αναγνώριση και κινητοποιεί ισχυρή προφλεγμονώδη απάντηση από τη φυσική ανοσία. Επιπλέον, η παραγωγή TNF-α, IL-6 και IL-10 που προκλήθηκε από τη βρουκέλλα ανεστάλη παρουσία αντι-TLR2, ενώ παρέμεινε ανεπηρέαστη παρουσία αντι-TLR4 αντισώματος. Η IL-1β δεν επηρεάστηκε από την εξουδετέρωση είτε του TLR2 ή του TLR4. Η διακοπή της σηματοδότησης διαμέσου του TLR2, αλλά όχι του TLR4, μείωσε σημαντικά την ενεργοποίηση αμφοτέρων των p38 και ERK ως απάντηση στη μόλυνση με βρουκέλλα. Επιπρόσθετα, η παραγωγή IL-1β από μονοκύτταρα μολυσμένα με βρουκέλλα παρέμεινε ανεπηρέαστη από την προσθήκη αναστολέων των MAP κινασών. Αναστολή της p38 ελάττωσε σημαντικά την παραγωγή IL-6 και εμπόδισε σχεδόν πλήρως την απελευθέρωση TNF-α, ενώ αναστολή της ERK1/2 μείωσε αξιοσημείωτα και τις δύο. Αναστολή της JNK δεν επηρέασε την παραγωγή TNF-α και IL-6. Η παραγωγή IL-10 μειώθηκε σημαντικά από αναστολή των p38 ή JNK, αλλά όχι από αυτήν της MAP2K. Τα συγκεκριμένα αποτελέσματα υποδηλώνουν ότι η ενεργοποίηση των MAP κινασών είναι σημαντικό ενδοκυττάριο στάδιο στην παραγωγή κυτταροκινών στην πορεία της βρουκελλώσεως. Τέλος, η ενεργοποίηση των MAP κινασών επηρεάζει την επιβίωση της βρουκέλλας εντός των ανθρωπίνων μονοκυττάρων. Η αναστολή της p38 ή της JNK κατέστειλε σχεδόν πλήρως την αύξηση της βρουκέλλας, ενώ αναστολή της ERK δεν μείωσε τον πολλαπλασιασμό της. Συμπερασματικά, καταδεικνύεται ότι η λοίμωξη με B. melitensis προκαλεί όψιμη ενεργοποίηση των ERK και p38 η οποία επηρεάζει την απελευθέρωση κυτταροκινών διαμέσου του TLR2. Ακόμη, η δράση των MAP κινασών είναι επωφελής για τον πολλαπλασιασμό της βρουκέλλας εντός των ανθρωπίνων μονοκυττάρων. Οι MAP κινάσες ενδέχεται να επηρεάζουν διαφορετικούς μηχανισμούς που εμπλέκονται στην ενδοκυττάρια επιβίωση της B. melitensis. Επί παραδείγματι, εμπλέκονται στη μεταφορά στο πρώιμο ενδόσωμα, την πρώιμη οξίνιση του φαγοσώματος, τη σηματοδότηση της επαγωγής του εκκριτικού συστήματος τύπου IV VirB ή τη ρύθμιση της σηματοδότησης της αυτοφαγίας. Τρέχουσες έρευνες του εργαστηρίου εξετάζουν τα συγκεκριμένα ενδεχόμενα. / Brucella, a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes undulant fever, endocarditis, arthritis and osteomyelitis in humans, establishes chronic infections by infecting, surviving and replicating in different cell types, including macrophages and dendritic cells. B. abortus, B. melitensis and B. suis are the main species that cause human brucellosis, with B. melitensis causing the majority of cases and the most severe symptoms. The capacity of Brucella to persist in infected cells depends on its stealthy strategy to avoid or interfere with components of the host innate and acquired immune responses. Initial host defenses against bacterial infection are stimulated by PAMPs, which are recognized by the host. Ample evidence implicates the different members of TLR family in recognition of Brucella and/or clearance of infection. One essential branch of signaling cascades initiated by TLR is the ubiquitously expressed family of MAPKs. MAPKs mediate cellular responses to a variety of extracellular stimuli, such as physical stress, inflammatory cytokines, growth factors and bacterial components. Object of the study was the investigation of MAPK orchestration of the innate immune response against pathogenic live clinical strains of B. melitensis in fresh human monocytes. Initially it has been shown that Brucella induced a strong pro-inflammatory response resulting in the release of high levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α and simultaneously triggered a strong anti-inflammatory response that lasted for a short time. Namely, live Brucellae do not avoid the initial recognition and trigger a strong inflammatory response. Moreover, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 production induced by Brucella was strongly inhibited in the presence of anti-TLR2, whereas it remained unaffected by the presence of anti-TLR4. IL-1β was not influenced either by TLR2 or TLR4 neutralization. Blocking by anti-TLR2, but not anti-TLR4, markedly reduced both p38 and ERK activation to basal levels in response to Brucella infection. Additionally, IL-1β production by Brucella-infected monocytes remained unaffected by the addition of MAPK inhibitors. Inhibition of p38 significantly diminished IL-6 production and almost completely prevented TNF-α release, whereas inhibition of ERK1/2 significantly reduced both. JNK inhibition had no effect on TNF-α and IL-6 production. IL-10 production was markedly reduced by p38 or JNK inhibition, but not MAP2K. These results suggest that MAPK activation is an important intracellular event leading to cytokine production in the course of Brucella infection. Finally, MAPK activation affects the survival of Brucella in human monocytes. Inhibition of p38 or JNK almost completely repressed Brucella growth, whereas inhibition of ERK did not reduce the multiplication rate of Brucella. In conclusion, it has been demonstrated that infection with B. melitensis induces a late activation of ERK and p38 that affects cytokine release in a TLR2-dependent manner. Moreover, MAPK activity is beneficial for replication of Brucella inside human monocytes. MAPK activation could affect a number of mechanisms involved in the intracellular survival of B. melitensis. MAPK activity is involved in the transport to the early endosome, early acidification of the phagosome, signaling for induction of the VirB Type IV secretion system, or regulation of the autophagic pathway. Current studies in our laboratory investigate these possibilities.