Many plants and animals are defended by toxic compounds, and circumvention of those defenses often has involved the evolution of elaborate mechanisms for tolerance or resistance of the toxins. Toads synthesize potent cardiotonic steroids known as bufadienolides (BDs) from cholesterol and store those toxins in high concentrations in their cutaneous glands. Those toxins protect toads from the majority of predators, including most snakes that readily consume other species of frogs. BDs exert their effect by inhibiting ion transport by the Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA). This ubiquitous transmembrane enzyme consists of a catalytic alpha-subunit, which carries out the enzyme's functions, and a glycoprotein beta-subunit, which provides structural stability. Inhibition of the NKA causes highly elevated intracellular Ca2+ levels and results in often lethal increased cardiac contraction strength. Molecular resistance to bufadienolides in snakes is conferred by mutations in the alpha-subunit of the Na+/K+-ATPase. I have found that these mutations are more prevalent in snakes than previously suggested, and that many genetically resistant species do not feed on toads. This suggests that possession of the mutations alone does not carry substantial negative consequences, and that feeding on toads may have been an ancestral habit in some groups of snakes. I have further found evidence of tissue-specific variation in resistance to bufadienolides, and gene expression investigations revealed that the bufadienolide resistance-conferring mutations are not expressed equally among different organs. Variation in resistance among different tissues indicates that possession of the mutations does not protect all cells equally. Finally, by testing the physiological responses of resistant snakes to exposure to cardiotonic steroid, I have found that feeding on toads incurs negative consequences and that toad-specialized resistant snakes respond differently from nontoad-specialized resistant snakes. The presence of physiological consequences of toxin exposure may explain why feeding on toads has been lost in some lineages of snakes that retain resistance-conferring mutations. In summary, these findings indicate that genetic resistance of the Na+/K+-ATPase is necessary in order for snakes to survive acute toxicity of bufadienolides, but it is not sufficient to explain fully the physiological mechanisms involved in dealing with chronic exposure to the toxins.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24453号 / 理博第4952号 / 新制||理||1707(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 森 哲, 教授 中務 真人, 教授 中川 尚史 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Toxinas animais são moléculas aplicáveis na geração de agentes terapêuticos e/ou de ferramentas experimentais para a pesquisa básica e aplicada, justificando sua purificação e análise funcional. Considerando que estudos de venenos de sapos são relevantes, por serem estes considerados uma boa fonte de toxinas que atuam sobre diferentes sistemas biológicos, os objetivos deste trabalho foram isolar toxinas presentes no veneno de Rinella schneideri e avaliar suas ações sobre a atividade da enzima Na+K+-ATPase e os sistemas nervosos central e periférico. O veneno de Rhinella schneideri foi inicialmente submetido a diferentes extrações resultando em quatro amostras. A AMOSTRA A, que apresenta apenas componentes de baixa massa molecular, foi a mais efetiva na redução da atividade da Na+K+-ATPase e foi, portanto, liofilizada e submetida a uma cromatografia de fase reversa em sistema CLAE em coluna C2C18. Das 5 frações majoritárias obtidas nesta cromatografia apenas as Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5 induziram uma redução concentração-dependente da atividade da Na+K+-ATPase, mostrando IC50% de 33,6 g, 47,7 g e 98,92 g, respectivamente. Estes resultados indicam que o veneno de R. schneideri apresenta pelo menos três substâncias capazes de inibir a Na+K+-ATPase. As frações Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5, foram submetidas à espectrometria de massa e revelaram massas moleculares de 403, 401 e 387 Da, provavelmente correspondentes à Telocinobufagina, Desacetilcinobufagina e Bufalina, respectivamente. Estes compostos mostraram também neuroproteção central muito relevante sobre crises convulsivas induzidas por PTZ (Pentilenotetrazol) e NMDA (n-metil-d-aspartato), sendo que a Rs5 foi a que causou maior neuroproteção. No entanto, estas mesmas frações apresentaram ação neurotóxica periférica, induzindo bloqueio da junção neuromuscular de pintainhos. Manifestações como alucinações, dormência, confusão mental também são observadas em envenenamentos por sapos, que podem ser induzidos por alcalóides presentes no veneno, o que justifica os estudos para a identificação dos mesmos. Neste trabalho confirmou-se a presença de ii alcalóides no veneno. No entanto, foram priorizados os estudos com as toxinas isoladas Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5, por apresentarem ações biológicas importantes. Concluindo, neste trabalho foram isolados 3 compostos de baixa massa molecular, denominados Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5, que são capazes de inibir a atividade da Na+K+- ATPase, bloquear a transmissão do impulso nervoso na junção neuromuscular de pintainhos e, principalmente a Rs5, proteger crises convulsivas induzidas por PTZ e NMDA. Estudos adicionais serão necessários para estabelecer a correlação entre estes efeitos e determinar o mecanismo de ação destas toxinas. / Animal toxins are molecules applicable in the generation of therapeutic agents and / or experimental tools for basic and applied research, justifying its purification and functional analysis. Whereas studies of poison toads are relevant, since these are considered a good source of toxins that act on different biological systems, the objectives of this work were to isolate toxins in the venom of Rinella schneideri and evaluate their actions on the Na+K+-ATPase activity and the central and peripheral nervous systems. The venom Rhinella schneideri was initially submitted to different extractions resulting in four samples. The SAMPLE A, with only low molecular mass components, was the most effective in reducing the activity of Na+K+-ATPase and was lyophilized and subjected to reverse phase chromatography in the HPLC system in C2C18 column. Five majority fractions were obtained from this chromatography and only Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5 induced a concentration-dependent reduction in activity of Na+K+-ATPase, showing IC50% 33.6 g, 47.7 g and 98.92 g, respectively. These results indicate that R. schneideri venom presents at least three substances that can inhibit the Na+K+-ATPase. Fractions Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5 were submitted to mass spectrometry assay showing molecular masses of 403, 401and 387 Da, probably corresponding to Telocinobufagin, Desacetylcinobufagin and Bufalin, respectively. These compounds also showed a very relevant central neuroprotection on seizures induced by PTZ (Pentylenetetrazole) and NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate), and the Rs5 caused the highest neuroprotection. However, these same fractions showed neurotoxicity on peripheral nervous system, inducing blockade of the neuromuscular junction of chicks. Manifestations such as hallucinations, numbness, mental confusion are also seen in poisoning by toads, which can be induced by alkaloids present in the venom, which justifies the studies for their identification. This work confirmed the presence of alkaloids in the venom. However, have been prioritized the studies with isolated toxins Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5, because they have important biological actions. In conclusion, in this study were isolated three compounds with iv low molecular mass, known as Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5, which are capable of inhibiting the activity of Na+K+-ATPase, blocking the nerve impulse transmission at the neuromuscular junction of chickens, and especially the Rs5 by protecting seizures induced by PTZ and NMDA. Additional studies are necessary to establish the correlation between these effects and determine the mechanism of action of these toxins.

Toxinas animais são moléculas aplicáveis na geração de agentes terapêuticos e/ou de ferramentas experimentais para a pesquisa básica e aplicada, justificando sua purificação e análise funcional. Considerando que estudos de venenos de sapos são relevantes, por serem estes considerados uma boa fonte de toxinas que atuam sobre diferentes sistemas biológicos, os objetivos deste trabalho foram isolar toxinas presentes no veneno de Rinella schneideri e avaliar suas ações sobre a atividade da enzima Na+K+-ATPase e os sistemas nervosos central e periférico. O veneno de Rhinella schneideri foi inicialmente submetido a diferentes extrações resultando em quatro amostras. A AMOSTRA A, que apresenta apenas componentes de baixa massa molecular, foi a mais efetiva na redução da atividade da Na+K+-ATPase e foi, portanto, liofilizada e submetida a uma cromatografia de fase reversa em sistema CLAE em coluna C2C18. Das 5 frações majoritárias obtidas nesta cromatografia apenas as Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5 induziram uma redução concentração-dependente da atividade da Na+K+-ATPase, mostrando IC50% de 33,6 g, 47,7 g e 98,92 g, respectivamente. Estes resultados indicam que o veneno de R. schneideri apresenta pelo menos três substâncias capazes de inibir a Na+K+-ATPase. As frações Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5, foram submetidas à espectrometria de massa e revelaram massas moleculares de 403, 401 e 387 Da, provavelmente correspondentes à Telocinobufagina, Desacetilcinobufagina e Bufalina, respectivamente. Estes compostos mostraram também neuroproteção central muito relevante sobre crises convulsivas induzidas por PTZ (Pentilenotetrazol) e NMDA (n-metil-d-aspartato), sendo que a Rs5 foi a que causou maior neuroproteção. No entanto, estas mesmas frações apresentaram ação neurotóxica periférica, induzindo bloqueio da junção neuromuscular de pintainhos. Manifestações como alucinações, dormência, confusão mental também são observadas em envenenamentos por sapos, que podem ser induzidos por alcalóides presentes no veneno, o que justifica os estudos para a identificação dos mesmos. Neste trabalho confirmou-se a presença de ii alcalóides no veneno. No entanto, foram priorizados os estudos com as toxinas isoladas Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5, por apresentarem ações biológicas importantes. Concluindo, neste trabalho foram isolados 3 compostos de baixa massa molecular, denominados Rs3, Rs4 e Rs5, que são capazes de inibir a atividade da Na+K+- ATPase, bloquear a transmissão do impulso nervoso na junção neuromuscular de pintainhos e, principalmente a Rs5, proteger crises convulsivas induzidas por PTZ e NMDA. Estudos adicionais serão necessários para estabelecer a correlação entre estes efeitos e determinar o mecanismo de ação destas toxinas. / Animal toxins are molecules applicable in the generation of therapeutic agents and / or experimental tools for basic and applied research, justifying its purification and functional analysis. Whereas studies of poison toads are relevant, since these are considered a good source of toxins that act on different biological systems, the objectives of this work were to isolate toxins in the venom of Rinella schneideri and evaluate their actions on the Na+K+-ATPase activity and the central and peripheral nervous systems. The venom Rhinella schneideri was initially submitted to different extractions resulting in four samples. The SAMPLE A, with only low molecular mass components, was the most effective in reducing the activity of Na+K+-ATPase and was lyophilized and subjected to reverse phase chromatography in the HPLC system in C2C18 column. Five majority fractions were obtained from this chromatography and only Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5 induced a concentration-dependent reduction in activity of Na+K+-ATPase, showing IC50% 33.6 g, 47.7 g and 98.92 g, respectively. These results indicate that R. schneideri venom presents at least three substances that can inhibit the Na+K+-ATPase. Fractions Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5 were submitted to mass spectrometry assay showing molecular masses of 403, 401and 387 Da, probably corresponding to Telocinobufagin, Desacetylcinobufagin and Bufalin, respectively. These compounds also showed a very relevant central neuroprotection on seizures induced by PTZ (Pentylenetetrazole) and NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate), and the Rs5 caused the highest neuroprotection. However, these same fractions showed neurotoxicity on peripheral nervous system, inducing blockade of the neuromuscular junction of chicks. Manifestations such as hallucinations, numbness, mental confusion are also seen in poisoning by toads, which can be induced by alkaloids present in the venom, which justifies the studies for their identification. This work confirmed the presence of alkaloids in the venom. However, have been prioritized the studies with isolated toxins Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5, because they have important biological actions. In conclusion, in this study were isolated three compounds with iv low molecular mass, known as Rs3, Rs4 and Rs5, which are capable of inhibiting the activity of Na+K+-ATPase, blocking the nerve impulse transmission at the neuromuscular junction of chickens, and especially the Rs5 by protecting seizures induced by PTZ and NMDA. Additional studies are necessary to establish the correlation between these effects and determine the mechanism of action of these toxins.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24182号 / 理博第4873号 / 新制||理||1697(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 森 哲, 教授 中務 真人, 教授 中川 尚史 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM