This research explores the life experiences of families and couples who lived through the Wangary fire (South Australia, January 2005). Examining the bushfire experience from a domestic perspective is long overdue. Open-ended interviews were conducted with thirty-eight couples and families across the fire-affected region on the Lower Eyre Peninsula. A shortlist of fourteen were analysed in detail and they form the foundation of this thesis. These bushfire narratives include the perspectives of farming and non-farming families and cover a wide spectrum of circumstances and demographics. Five of the fourteen families lost their homes in the Wangary fire. Critical decision-making and the presence of children is at the heart of this case study. How the presence of babies and young children influences family decision-making, in advance of or during a bushfire, has not been considered or studied in any detail within the Australian research landscape. Exploring the differences of experience between women with young families and older women confirms the primary weakness of the national bushfire safety ('stay or go') policy. Gender and generation were the two defining factors that informed how people responded to and recovered from the Wangary fire. The perspective of younger people, within the context of bushfire research, has been neglected in the past; this case study incorporates their views and thoughts. It is hoped that insights gleaned from these bushfire narratives will encourage the enhancement of the national 'stay or go' policy.

Cultural representations of bushfire have long reflected the importance of these events in both the nation’s history and in popular imagination. / The central argument of this thesis is that depictions of fire in literature, art, film and popular culture have demonstrated the capacity to shape community understandings of bushfire behaviour and may influence the way in which people respond to and behave during such emergencies. In support of this, the role that bushfire has played in popular culture is explored and the perpetuation of certain myths and understandings through a range of cultural expressions is examined. It is contended that these cultural artefacts can have a direct impact upon community understanding of bushfires, their place in the Australian landscape and — importantly — how the broader community respond to such events. / The work discerns the shift in attitude towards bushfire in such cultural expressions from the 19th century until the present day. One purpose of the research is to posit whether such influences may act as impediments to the delivery of community bushfire education programs. / The structure of the thesis incorporates an introductory review of relevant literature and theoretical material. As the study of the cultural interpretation of disaster in Australia is in its infancy, pertinent overseas research is examined that identifies theoretical models that may be applied to bushfires in Australia. In particular, the representation of bushfire in • visual art • children’s literature; • adult fiction; is examined in detail. / Primary texts and artistic works will be examined for evidence of the understandings about bushfire that they generate or sustain. These interpretations will be compared with scientific and experiential understandings of bushfire behaviour and to the limited literature in disaster studies that has examined myths and perceptions of such events. / In the visual arts, fire has an obvious attraction for practitioners, both during its impact and in its aftermath. There has been an evident revival of interest in fire as a theme in the late 20th and early 21st centuries parallel to the intense interest artists showed in these events at the end of the 19th century. / Juvenile literature in Australia has produced extensive manifestations of bushfire representations. Fire lends itself to depiction in this genre for a number of reasons. It has been used, for example, to locate stories in a distinctly Australian context. It provides the elements of danger and adventure that allow for the development of strong narratives. Finally, it has a bold visual element that lends itself to pictorial interpretations. There is significant theoretical support for the idea that knowledge learned at this stage of a person’s development is retained until much later in life. / Conversely, bushfire appears to be relatively unusual as the basis for adult fiction, although (particularly in the 19th century) it is often incorporated into the background landscape. There are only a handful of adult novels in which bushfire is central to the narrative, while there are many in which it forms part of the backdrop.

Cultural representations of bushfire have long reflected the importance of these events in both the nation’s history and in popular imagination. / The central argument of this thesis is that depictions of fire in literature, art, film and popular culture have demonstrated the capacity to shape community understandings of bushfire behaviour and may influence the way in which people respond to and behave during such emergencies. In support of this, the role that bushfire has played in popular culture is explored and the perpetuation of certain myths and understandings through a range of cultural expressions is examined. It is contended that these cultural artefacts can have a direct impact upon community understanding of bushfires, their place in the Australian landscape and — importantly — how the broader community respond to such events. / The work discerns the shift in attitude towards bushfire in such cultural expressions from the 19th century until the present day. One purpose of the research is to posit whether such influences may act as impediments to the delivery of community bushfire education programs. / The structure of the thesis incorporates an introductory review of relevant literature and theoretical material. As the study of the cultural interpretation of disaster in Australia is in its infancy, pertinent overseas research is examined that identifies theoretical models that may be applied to bushfires in Australia. In particular, the representation of bushfire in • visual art • children’s literature; • adult fiction; is examined in detail. / Primary texts and artistic works will be examined for evidence of the understandings about bushfire that they generate or sustain. These interpretations will be compared with scientific and experiential understandings of bushfire behaviour and to the limited literature in disaster studies that has examined myths and perceptions of such events. / In the visual arts, fire has an obvious attraction for practitioners, both during its impact and in its aftermath. There has been an evident revival of interest in fire as a theme in the late 20th and early 21st centuries parallel to the intense interest artists showed in these events at the end of the 19th century. / Juvenile literature in Australia has produced extensive manifestations of bushfire representations. Fire lends itself to depiction in this genre for a number of reasons. It has been used, for example, to locate stories in a distinctly Australian context. It provides the elements of danger and adventure that allow for the development of strong narratives. Finally, it has a bold visual element that lends itself to pictorial interpretations. There is significant theoretical support for the idea that knowledge learned at this stage of a person’s development is retained until much later in life. / Conversely, bushfire appears to be relatively unusual as the basis for adult fiction, although (particularly in the 19th century) it is often incorporated into the background landscape. There are only a handful of adult novels in which bushfire is central to the narrative, while there are many in which it forms part of the backdrop.

This thesis is an analysis of human vulnerability to bushfires in the Wulgulmerang district of East Gippsland, Victoria, in south-eastern Australia. On January 30, 2003, bushfires devastated the small population of this isolated farming district. The fires destroyed homes, livelihood assets and public infrastructure. They also adversely affected the health, livelihoods and social lives of many local people. Australian bushfire research has traditionally focused on the geophysical dimensions of fire hazards and disasters, with little consideration of how cultural, economic, political and social factors shape people's exposure to hazards and their capacities to cope and adapt to bushfire impacts. To date, there have been no systematic, social science analyses of human vulnerability to bushfires. The vulnerability analysis presented in this thesis concentrates on two key research questions: (1) How and why were people exposed to hazards during the bushfires? and (2) How and why were people differentially capable of coping and adapting to the fires' impacts? Qualitative methods were primarily used to investigate these questions, including semi-structured interviews with residents and landholders of the Wulgulmerang district, representatives of government departments and authorities, and others who participated in responses to the fires. The thesis develops a multifaceted understanding of how and why people were vulnerable to the January 30 fires. Vulnerability is shown to arise from the circumstances of people's day to day lives, which are shaped by factors both within and beyond their control. Local pressures and challenges - such as drought, declining farm incomes, depopulation, limited access to essential services, and political marginality - are shown to increase people's exposure to bushfire hazards and reduce their capacities to cope and adapt. The thesis demonstrates the fundamental importance of sustainable livelihoods and regional economic and social vitality to the long-term goal of vulnerability reduction.

The capability to monitor bushfires on a large scale from space has long been identified as an important contribution to climate and atmospheric research as well as a tool an aid in natural hazard response. Since the work by Dozier (1981), fire monitoring from space has relied on the principles he described. His method of identifying fires within a pixel significantly larger than the fire by utilizing the different responses of the 3 μm and 11 μm channels has been applied to a number of sensors. Over the last decade a lot of work has been invested to refine and validate fire detections based on this approach. So far, the application of the method proposed by Dozier (1981) reached its peak with the launch of the MODIS instrument on board the Terra satellite. In contrast to earlier sensors, MODIS was equipped with spectral channels specifically designed for the detection of fires with algorithms based on the work by Dozier (1981). These channels were designed to overcome problems experienced with other platforms, the biggest of which is the saturation of the 3 μm channel caused by big, hot fires. Since its launch, MODIS has proven itself to be a capable platform to provide worldwide fire detection at a moderate resolution of 1 km on a daily basis. / It is the intention of this work to open up new opportunities in remote sensing of fires from satellites by showing capabilities and limitations in the application of other spectral channels, in particular the 2.1 μm channel of MODIS, than the ones currently used. This channel is chosen for investigation as fires are expected to emit a significant amount of energy in this bandwidth and as it is available at a native resolution of 500 m on MODIS; double the resolution of the 3 μm and 11 μm channels. The modelling of blackbodies of typical bushfire temperatures shows that a fire detection method based on the 2.1 μm channel will not be able to replace the current methods. Blackbodies of temperatures around 600 to 700 K, that are common for smoldering fires, do not emit a great amount of energy at 2.1 μm. It would be hardly possible to detect those fires by utilizing the 2.1 μm channel. The established methods based on the 3 μm and 11 μm channels are expected to work better in these cases. Blackbodies of typically flaming fires (above 800 K) however show a very high emission around 2.1 μm that should make their detection using the 2.1 μm channel possible. / In order to develop a fire detection method based on the 2.1 μm channel, it is necessary to differentiate between the radiance caused by a fire of sub pixel size and the radiance of a pixel caused by the reflection of sunlight. This is attempted by using time series of past observations to model a reflectance value for a given pixel expected in absence of a fire. A fire detection algorithm exploiting the difference between the expected and observed reflectance is implemented and its detection results are compared to high resolution ASTER fire maps, the standard MODIS fire detection algorithm (MOD14) and burnt area maps. The detections of the method based on the 2.1 μm channel are found to correspond very well with the other three datasets. However, the comparison showed detections that do not align with MOD14 active fire detections but are generally aligned with burn areas. This phenomena has to be investigated in the future.

Radio propagation in the presence of fire is known to be problematic to communications. In this thesis we use both experimental and theoretical approaches to examine and understand radio propagation in fire environments. Propagation is examined for three small scale fires with broadband equipment operating from 50MHz to 1GHz. Results for line of sight propagation show a strong interaction of fire with electromagnetic propagation. The next section develops electromagnetic modelling of the fire environment. A model of the combustion induced plasma is developed, as well as a refractive index model of the surrounding atmosphere of a fire. Simple propagation calculations are undertaken, using the developed fire models, to provide an intial understanding of propagation in fire environments. The next portion of the thesis considers propagation using a more rigorous electromagnetic simulation technique. A modified Finite Difference Time Domain method is presented and is utilised to examine three dimensional propagation in the small scale fire experiments. The outcome is a more solid understanding of propagation and the contributing factors. The last portion of the thesis is the application of the above electromagnetic modelling and simulation methods to bushfire scenarios. Various scenarios that are problematic to radio communication are examined. Discussion and recommendations are made concerning radio communication frequency selection and considerations for propagation in fire environments. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1457560 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, 2009

Radio propagation in the presence of fire is known to be problematic to communications. In this thesis we use both experimental and theoretical approaches to examine and understand radio propagation in fire environments. Propagation is examined for three small scale fires with broadband equipment operating from 50MHz to 1GHz. Results for line of sight propagation show a strong interaction of fire with electromagnetic propagation. The next section develops electromagnetic modelling of the fire environment. A model of the combustion induced plasma is developed, as well as a refractive index model of the surrounding atmosphere of a fire. Simple propagation calculations are undertaken, using the developed fire models, to provide an intial understanding of propagation in fire environments. The next portion of the thesis considers propagation using a more rigorous electromagnetic simulation technique. A modified Finite Difference Time Domain method is presented and is utilised to examine three dimensional propagation in the small scale fire experiments. The outcome is a more solid understanding of propagation and the contributing factors. The last portion of the thesis is the application of the above electromagnetic modelling and simulation methods to bushfire scenarios. Various scenarios that are problematic to radio communication are examined. Discussion and recommendations are made concerning radio communication frequency selection and considerations for propagation in fire environments. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1457560 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, 2009

Bushfires are an integral part of the Australian environment, and consequently Australian fire fighters are regularly confronted with the challenge of bushfire fighting activities. Bushfires can be extensive and long-lasting, and as a result fire fighters can be exposed to bushfire smoke for long periods without respite. Anecdotal evidence suggests that bushfire smoke exposure can lead to respiratory symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath. In an optimal environment, fire fighters are equipped with respirators and protective filters to prevent the inhalation of the air toxics in bushfire smoke. Yet, reports from the fire ground indicate that the protective filters are not effective in preventing the inhalation of bushfire smoke. As a result, fire fighters have increasingly expressed concern about the ineffective equipment and the resultant respiratory symptoms during and after bushfire fighting. This research aims to establish a scientific data base to support the anecdotal evidence. The objectives of the research were: (1) to identify and quantify the air toxics in Western Australian bushfire smoke; (2) to profile the acute respiratory health effects associated with bushfire smoke exposure; (3) to assess the effectiveness of three different types of filters under controlled conditions in a smoke chamber, and in the field during fuel reduction burn-off; (4) to formulate recommendations for reducing fire fighters' exposure to bushfire smoke; and (5) to inform policy decision makers about the most effective form of respiratory protective equipment for bushfire fighting. Exposure trials were conducted in an experimental setting utilising bushfire smoke conditions in a smoke chamber and during prescribed burn-offs. Repeated measurements of respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function and oximetry were undertaken before and after bushfire smoke exposure. In addition, personal air sampling inside the respirators was undertaken to quantify and compare the levels of filtered air toxics. The analysis of the collected data demonstrated that, of those compared, the particulate/organic vapour formaldehyde filter was most effective in protecting fire fighters' respiratory health during the smoke exposure period of maximally 120 minutes. Further research would be useful to determine the v effectiveness of the filters under more realistic conditions during bushfire fighting activities. The findings of this research have resulted in a policy review in Western Australia. In 2006, the Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia (FESA) reviewed its Bush Fire Smoke Exposure Standard Operational Procedures 51, and now issues the recommended particulate/organic vapour/formaldehyde filters to the 1,000 FESA career fire fighters. The use of protective equipment for bushfire fighters is inadequately regulated worldwide and the recommendation implemented by FESA can be seen as proactive and in advance of national and international best practice. In conclusion, this project was instrumental in the translation of public health research into best practice that protects occupational health, without the need for the lengthy process of legislative reform. Fire fighter organisations in other countries with high frequencies of bushfires could learn from this example, and move to review their policies and introduce adequate personal protection for fire fighters.