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The chicken BG system is a highly polymorphic and polygenic multigene family encoding type I transmembrane proteins, with butryophilins as homologues in mammals, some of which are crucial in T cell regulation. There are three genomic locations where BG genes are found: one singleton BG gene (BG0) on chromosome 2, another singleton gene (BG1) in BF-BL region (the so-called minimal essential chicken MHC) on chromosome 16, and many BG genes arranged tandemly in the BG region just outside the MHC. BG genes in BG region have copy number variation between different chicken haplotypes, so it has been unclear which BG genes are alleles, as very little sequence information has been available for haplotypes other than B12, the best characterized one. Also, the functions of chicken BG genes have been a mystery for half a century, although there is evidence for cytoskeletal regulation and for viral disease resistance. Therefore, the aim of the research was to develop new procedures and reagents to understand the BG system. A novel PCR protocol was established to overcome the difficulty of amplifying full length polymorphic BG transcripts, and then was applied to systematically examine the BG cDNA sequences from T cells and B cells of four different chicken haplotypes. In total 23 BG genes were found, most with alternative splicing isoforms; most strikingly, the transcripts potentially encoding soluble BG proteins were only seen in B cells, indicating functional differences of the same gene in T and B cells. By comparing the dominantly expressed BG genes as 'functional alleles' in these cells, only the cytoplasmic tail region is clearly seen to be under selection, based on the overwhelming preponderance of non-synonymous changes. With many other unexpected findings discovered in this project, a clearer picture of chicken BG genes is presented, and more questions were raised for future study. In order to explore BG functions and further characterize BG proteins, fourteen stable cell lines were developed expressing fusion proteins of the Ig-V domains of the 14 BG genes from the B12 haplotype chicken with the human IgG1 Fc fragment. These BG-Fc fusion proteins were used in sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to screen 290 BG monoclonal antibody (mAb) tissue culture supernatants, and these BG mAbs were further characterized for specificity by western blot using BG-Fc fusion proteins. These solid tools (BG-Fc fusion proteins and BG mAbs) provide the basis to further understand chicken BG functions and answer other interesting questions.

La sous-famille BTN3A comprend 3 isoformes : BTN3A1, A2 et A3. Le domaine intracellulaire B30.2 de BTN3A1 est impliqué dans la reconnaissance du Phosphoantigène (Pag) et l’activation des lymphocytes T Vγ9Vδ2(LTVγ9Vδ2). BTN3A2, dépourvue de B30.2, pourrait être un récepteur-leurre. L’anticorps monoclonal (Acm) 20.1 reconnaît les trois isoformes de BTN3A et sensibilise les tumeurs à la lyse par les LTVγ9Vδ2, mimant l’action des Biphosphonates (N-BP). Nous avons étudié l’expression, la régulation et le ciblage de BTN3A en contexte d’hémopathie maligne et de tumeur solide. Nous avons montré que BTN3A2 est l’isoforme majoritairement exprimée par les blastes de Leucémie Aiguë Myéloïde (LAM) primaire. Cependant, l’Acm 20.1 sensibilise les blastes de LAM primaire à la lyse par les LT Vγ9Vδ2, même ceux résistants aux N-BP. Cet effet est confirmé dans des souris NOD-SCID-γcKO xénogreffées avec la lignée U937 ou des blastes primaires. Nous avons ensuite montré l’expression de BTN3A sur des lignées et des tumeurs pancréatiques primaires et observé qu’elle est associée au pronostic chez les patients atteints de cancer du pancréas. L’expression de BTN3A2, isoforme majoritairement exprimée augmente en contexte de stress cellulaire hypoxique et métabolique. La faible expression de BTN3A1 comparativement à BTN3A2 et le clivage des BTN3A pourraient favoriser l’échappement tumoral à la reconnaissance par les LT Vγ9Vδ2. Cependant, les LT Vγ9Vδ2 ont des fonctions cytolytiques préservées en hypoxie. Le ciblage de BTN3A par l’Acm 20.1 sur les tumeurs étudiées, en restaurant la lyse par les LT Vγ9Vδ2, offrirait des perspectives thérapeutiques notamment pour les tumeurs chimiorésistantes. / BTN3A subfamily comprises three isoforms: BTN3A1, A2 and A3. The B30.2 intracellular domain of BTN3A1is involved in Phosphoantigen recognition and Vγ9Vδ2 T cells activation. BTN3A2, devoid of B30.2 domain, could be « a decoy receptor ». The agonist anti-BTN3A monoclonal Antibody (mAb) 20.1 recognizes the three BTN3A isoforms and sensitizes tumors to Vγ9Vδ2 T cell lysis. This mAb mimics the effect of Aminobisphosphonates (N-BP). We studied BTN3A expression, regulation and targeting in tumors of hematological and solid origin. We showed that primary Acute Myeloïd Leukemia (AML) blasts express BTN3A with a main expression of BTN3A2. However, the 20.1 mAb sensitizes primary AML blasts to Vγ9Vδ2 T cell lysis even N-BP-poorly sensitive blasts. This was confirmed in NOD-SCID-γc KO mice xenografted with U937 human cell line or primary blasts. Next, we have demonstrated BTN3A expression in pancreatic cell lines and primary tumors. We observed that BTN3A is associated to prognosis in patients with pancreatic cancer. BTN3A2 is the most highly expressed isoform and its level of expression increases upon hypoxic and metabolic cellular stress. The weak expression of BTN3A1 compared to BTN3A2 isoform together with BTN3A molecules shedding could constitute an immune escape mechanism of tumor cells from Vγ9Vδ2 T cells recognition. Though, Vγ9Vδ2 T cells have preserved cytotoxic functions under hypoxic condition. BTN3A targeting with anti-BTN3A 20.1 mAb on the tumors we studied would open new therapeutic perspectives notably in chemoresistant tumors, thanks to the restoration of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell lysis.

Les phosphoantigènes (P-Ag) de P. falciparum (P.f.) induisent une forte activation et une expansion des lymphocytes T (LT) Vγ9Vδ2 par un mécanisme encore mal décrit. Les LT Vγ9Vδ2 actives inhibent le cycle sanguin de P. f. par des médiateurs cytotoxiques solubles, inhibant ainsi la capacité invasive des mérozoites. Il a été montre in vitro que des LT Vγ9Vδ2 activés par les P-Ag peuvent présenter des antigènes et activer les LT αβ, agissant ainsi comme des cellules présentatrices d’antigènes (APC). Cette fonction n’a cependant pas été démontrée dans un contexte physiopathologique. Le but de ce projet est i) d’étudier les mécanismes d’activation des LT Vγ9Vδ2 par les stades sanguins P. f. et ii) d’evaluer le potentiel APC des LT Vγ9Vδ2 stimules par P. f. Nous montrons que l’activation des LT Vγ9Vδ2 par des globules rouges parasites par P. f. (GRP) intacts ne dépend ni d’un contact cellulaire, ni de l’expression de butyrophiline par le GRP. Les LT Vγ9Vδ2 sont activés par des molécules contenues dans les surnageants de culture de GRP, ayant les caractéristiques de P-Ags et étant libérées lors de la rupture des GRP. In vitro, les LT Vγ9Vδ2 stimules par les GRP expriment des marqueurs de surface associés à un rôle d’APC et cross-présentent un antigène modèle à une lignée T CD8 spécifique. In vivo, nous montrons une expression augmentée des marqueurs APC à la surface de LT Vγ9Vδ2 de patients infectés par P. falciparum. L’ensemble de ces données suggèrent que les P-Ag libérés par les GRP dans le milieu extracellulaire pourraient activer les LT Vγ9Vδ2 à distance, et ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives quant au rôle des LT Vγ9Vδ2 dans la réponse immunitaire adaptative anti-palustre. / P. falciparum derived phosphoantigens (P‐Ag) induce potent activation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2 T-cells by a poorly described mechanism. Activated Vγ9Vδ2 T cells inhibit the Plasmodium falciparum blood cycle through soluble cytotoxic mediators, abrogating merozoite invasion capacity. In vitro, P-Ag activated Vγ9Vδ2 T lymphocytes have been shown to present antigens and induce αβ T lymphocyte responses, i.e. to act as an antigen presenting cell (APC). Whether this activity can be involved in a pathophysiological context is unknown. The aim of this PhD project is to a) investigate the mechanisms of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation by blood stage P. falciparum and b) assess the potential of P. falciparum activated Vγ9Vδ2 T cells to display APC functionality. We show that Vγ9Vδ2 T-cell activation by intact iRBCs is independent of iRBC contact and butyrophilin expression. Blood stage culture supernatants can potently activate Vγ9Vδ2 T-cells and bioactivity is found to be attributable to P-Ags released at the time of parasite egress from the RBC. In vitro iRBC stimulated Vγ9Vδ2 T cells up-regulate surface expression of APC associated markers and can cross-present a model antigen to specific CD8 T cell responders. In vivo we demonstrate an increase in surface expression of APC makers on Vγ9Vδ2 T cells from P. falciparum infected patients.Altogether, these data outline a framework whereby P‐Ag release by iRBC into extracellular milieu can promote activation of distant Vγ9Vδ2 T cells, and opens the door to a new aspect of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell contribution to P. falciparum adaptive immune responses.