<p>Due to its close tissue-equivalence, high radiation sensitivity, dose and dose-rate linearity, diamond is a very promising detector for radiation therapy applications. The present thesis focuses on the development of a chemical vapour deposited (CVD) diamond detector with special attention on the arrangement of the electrodes and encapsulation having minimal influence on the measured signal. Several prototype detectors were designed by using CVD-diamond substrates with attached silver electrodes.</p><p>Interface effects in the electrode-diamond-electrode structure are investigated using the Monte Carlo (MC) code PENELOPE. The studies cover a wide range of electrode and diamond thicknesses, electrode materials and photon beam energies. An appreciable enhancement of the absorbed dose to diamond was found for high-Z electrodes. The influence of the electrodes diminishes with decreasing atomic number difference and layer thickness, so that from this point of view thin graphite electrodes would be ideal. The effect of encapsulation, cable and electrical connections on the detector response is also addressed employing MC techniques. For Co-60, 6 and 18 MV photon beam qualities it is shown that the prototypes exhibit energy and directional dependence of about 3% and 2%, respectively. By modifying the geometry and using graphite electrodes the dependencies are reduced to 1%.</p><p>Although experimental studies disclose some limitations of the prototypes (high leakage current, priming effect and slow signal stabilisation), diamonds of higher quality, suitable for dosimetry, can be produced with better-controlled CVD process. With good crystals and a well-designed encapsulation, the CVD-diamond detector could become competitive for routine dosimetry. It is then important for correct dose determination to use a collision stopping power for diamond incorporating proper mean excitation energy and density-effect corrections. A new mean excitation energy of 88 eV has been calculated.</p>

Due to its close tissue-equivalence, high radiation sensitivity, dose and dose-rate linearity, diamond is a very promising detector for radiation therapy applications. The present thesis focuses on the development of a chemical vapour deposited (CVD) diamond detector with special attention on the arrangement of the electrodes and encapsulation having minimal influence on the measured signal. Several prototype detectors were designed by using CVD-diamond substrates with attached silver electrodes. Interface effects in the electrode-diamond-electrode structure are investigated using the Monte Carlo (MC) code PENELOPE. The studies cover a wide range of electrode and diamond thicknesses, electrode materials and photon beam energies. An appreciable enhancement of the absorbed dose to diamond was found for high-Z electrodes. The influence of the electrodes diminishes with decreasing atomic number difference and layer thickness, so that from this point of view thin graphite electrodes would be ideal. The effect of encapsulation, cable and electrical connections on the detector response is also addressed employing MC techniques. For Co-60, 6 and 18 MV photon beam qualities it is shown that the prototypes exhibit energy and directional dependence of about 3% and 2%, respectively. By modifying the geometry and using graphite electrodes the dependencies are reduced to 1%. Although experimental studies disclose some limitations of the prototypes (high leakage current, priming effect and slow signal stabilisation), diamonds of higher quality, suitable for dosimetry, can be produced with better-controlled CVD process. With good crystals and a well-designed encapsulation, the CVD-diamond detector could become competitive for routine dosimetry. It is then important for correct dose determination to use a collision stopping power for diamond incorporating proper mean excitation energy and density-effect corrections. A new mean excitation energy of 88 eV has been calculated.

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) diamond detectors were modelled for dosimetry of radiotherapy beams. This was achieved by employing the EGSnrc Monte Carlo (MC) method to investigate certain properties of the detector, such as size, shape and electrode materials. Simulations were carried out for a broad 6 MV photon beam, and water phantoms with both uniform and non-uniform voxel dimensions. A number of critical MC parameters were investigated for the development of a model that can simulate very small voxels. For a given number of histories (100 million), combinations of the following parameters were analyzed: cross section data, boundary crossing algorithm and the HOWFARLESS option, with the rest of the transport parameters being kept at default values. The MC model obtained with the optimized parameters was successfully validated against published data for a 1.25 MeV photon beam and CVD diamond detector with silver/carbon/silver structure with thicknesses of 0.07/0.2/0.07 cm for the electrode/detector/electrode, respectively. The interface phenomena were investigated for a 6 MV beam by simulating different electrode materials: aluminium, silver, copper and gold for perpendicular and parallel detector orientation with regards to the beam. The smallest interface phenomena were observed for parallel detector orientation with electrodes made of the lowest atomic number material, which was aluminium. The simulated percentage depth dose and beam profiles were compared with experimental data. The best agreement between simulation and measurement was achieved for the detector in parallel orientation and aluminium electrodes, with differences of approximately 1%. In summary, investigations related to the CVD diamond detector modelling revealed that the EGSnrc MC code is suitable for simulation of small size detectors. The simulation results are in good agreement with experimental data and the model can now be used to assist with the design and construction of prototype diamond detectors for clinical dosimetry. Future work will include investigating the detector response for different energies, small field sizes, different orientations other than perpendicular and parallel to the beam, and the influence of each electrode on the absorbed dose.

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) diamond detectors were modelled for dosimetry of radiotherapy beams. This was achieved by employing the EGSnrc Monte Carlo (MC) method to investigate certain properties of the detector, such as size, shape and electrode materials. Simulations were carried out for a broad 6 MV photon beam, and water phantoms with both uniform and non-uniform voxel dimensions. A number of critical MC parameters were investigated for the development of a model that can simulate very small voxels. For a given number of histories (100 million), combinations of the following parameters were analyzed: cross section data, boundary crossing algorithm and the HOWFARLESS option, with the rest of the transport parameters being kept at default values. The MC model obtained with the optimized parameters was successfully validated against published data for a 1.25 MeV photon beam and CVD diamond detector with silver/carbon/silver structure with thicknesses of 0.07/0.2/0.07 cm for the electrode/detector/electrode, respectively. The interface phenomena were investigated for a 6 MV beam by simulating different electrode materials: aluminium, silver, copper and gold for perpendicular and parallel detector orientation with regards to the beam. The smallest interface phenomena were observed for parallel detector orientation with electrodes made of the lowest atomic number material, which was aluminium. The simulated percentage depth dose and beam profiles were compared with experimental data. The best agreement between simulation and measurement was achieved for the detector in parallel orientation and aluminium electrodes, with differences of approximately 1%. In summary, investigations related to the CVD diamond detector modelling revealed that the EGSnrc MC code is suitable for simulation of small size detectors. The simulation results are in good agreement with experimental data and the model can now be used to assist with the design and construction of prototype diamond detectors for clinical dosimetry. Future work will include investigating the detector response for different energies, small field sizes, different orientations other than perpendicular and parallel to the beam, and the influence of each electrode on the absorbed dose.

In the frame of this thesis, a new experimental setup for the measurement of the energy loss of carbon ions at maximum stopping power in a hot laser-generated plasma has been developed and successfully tested. In this parameter range where the projectile velocity is of the same order of magnitude as the thermal velocity of the plasma free electrons, large uncertainties of up to 50% are present in the stopping-power description. To date, no experimental data are available to perform a theory benchmarking. Testing the different stopping theories is yet essential for inertial confinement fusion and in particular for the understanding of the alpha-particle heating of the thermonuclear fuel. Here, for the first time, precise measurements were carried out in a reproducible and entirely characterized beam-plasma configuration. It involved a nearly fully-stripped ion beam probing a homogeneous fully-ionized plasma. This plasma was generated by irradiating a thin carbon foil with two high-energy laser beams and features a maximum electron temperature of 200 eV. The plasma conditions were simulated with a two-dimensional radiative hydrodynamic code, while the ion-beam charge-state distribution was predicted by means of a Monte-Carlo code describing the charge-exchange processes of projectile ions in plasma. To probe at maximum stopping power, high-frequency pulsed ion bunches were decelerated to an energy of 0.5 MeV per nucleon. The ion energy loss was determined by a time-of-flight measurement using a specifically developed chemical-vapor-deposition diamond detector that was screened against any plasma radiation. A first experimental campaign was carried out using this newly developed platform, in which a precision better than 200 keV on the energy loss was reached. This allowed, via the knowledge of the plasma and of the beam parameters, to reliably test several stopping theories, either based on perturbation theory or on a nonlinear T-Matrix formalism. A preliminary analysis suggests that the energy deposition at maximum stopping power is significantly smaller than predicted, particularly, by perturbation approaches.

Dans le cadre de cette thèse, un nouveau dispositif expérimental pour la mesure du dépôt d'energie d'ions carbone au maximum du pouvoir d'arrêt dans un plasma généré par laser a été développé et testé avec succès. Dans ce domaine de paramètres où la vitesse du projectile est de l'ordre de grandeur de la vitesse thermique des électrons libres du plasma, l'incertitude théorique sur le pouvoir d'arrêt peut atteindre 50%. Or à l'heure actuelle, aucune donnée expérimentale ne permet de vérifier et de tester les différentes prédictions. Une discrimination des théories existantes du pouvoir d'arrêt est cependant essentielle pour la Fusion par Confinement Inertiel et particulièrement pour comprendre le chauffage du combustible par les particules alpha dans la phase d'allumage. Pour la première fois, des mesures précises du dépôt d'énergie des ions ont été effectuées dans une configuration expérimentale reproductible et entièrement caractérisée. Celle-ci consiste en un faisceau d'ions entièrement ionisé interagissant avec un plasma entièrement ionisé et homogène. Le plasma a été généré par l'irradiation d'une cible mince de carbone avec deux faisceaux laser à haute énergie et présente une température électronique maximale of 200 eV. Les paramètres du plasma ont été simulés à l'aide d'un code hydrodynamique radiatif bi-dimensionel, tandis que la distribution de charge du faisceau d'ions a été estimée avec un code Monte-Carlo qui décrit les processus d'échange de charge des ions dans le plasma. Pour sonder le plasma au maximum du pouvoir d'arrêt, un faisceau d'ions pulsé à haute fréquence a été freiné à une énergie de 0.5 MeV par nucléon. Le dépôt d'énergie des ions a été déterminé via une mesure de temps de vol à l'aide d'un détecteur à base de diamant produit par dépôt chimique en phase vapeur, protégé contre les radiations émises par le plasma. Une première campagne expérimentale a été conduite pour exploiter le nouveau dispositif, dans laquelle le dépôt d'énergie a été mesuré avec une précision inférieure à 200 keV. Cela a permis, grâce à la connaissance des paramètres du plasma et du faisceau d'ions, de tester différentes théories de pouvoir d'arrêt de manière fiable. Une analyse préliminaire des résultats montre que le dépôt d'énergie au maximum du pouvoir d'arrêt est plus faible qu'il n'a été prédit par la plupart des théories, et en particulier par les théories des perturbations. / In the frame of this thesis, a new experimental setup for the measurement of the energy loss of carbon ions at maximum stopping power in a hot laser-generated plasma has been developed and successfully tested. In this parameter range where the projectile velocity is of the same order of magnitude as the thermal velocity of the plasma free electrons, large uncertainties of up to 50% are present in the stopping-power description. To date, no experimental data are available to perform a theory benchmarking. Testing the different stopping theories is yet essential for inertial confinement fusion and in particular for the understanding of the alpha-particle heating of the thermonuclear fuel. Here, for the first time, precise measurements were carried out in a reproducible and entirely characterized beam-plasma configuration. It involved a nearly fully-stripped ion beam probing a homogeneous fully-ionized plasma. This plasma was generated by irradiating a thin carbon foil with two high-energy laser beams and features a maximum electron temperature of 200 eV. The plasma conditions were simulated with a two-dimensional radiative hydrodynamic code, while the ion-beam charge-state distribution was predicted by means of a Monte-Carlo code describing the charge-exchange processes of projectile ions in plasma. To probe at maximum stopping power, high-frequency pulsed ion bunches were decelerated to an energy of 0.5 MeV per nucleon. The ion energy loss was determined by a time-of-flight measurement using a specifically developed chemical-vapor-deposition diamond detector that was screened against any plasma radiation. A first experimental campaign was carried out using this newly developed platform, in which a precision better than 200 keV on the energy loss was reached. This allowed, via the knowledge of the plasma and of the beam parameters, to reliably test several stopping theories, either based on perturbation theory or on a nonlinear T-Matrix formalism. A preliminary analysis suggests that the energy deposition at maximum stopping power is significantly smaller than predicted, particularly, by perturbation approaches. / Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein neuer experimentelle Aufbau für die Messung des Energieverlusts von Kohlenstoff-Ionen bei maximalem Bremsvermögen in einem lasererzeugtem Plasma entwickelt und getestet. In diesem Parameterbereich, wo die Projektilgeschwindigkeit nah der thermischen Geschwindigkeit der Plasmaelektronen liegt, weist die theoretische Beschreibung des Bremsvermögens erheblichen Unsicherheiten bis 50% auf. Ausserdem sind bisher keine experimentellen Daten verfügbar, um die theoretischen Vorhersagen zu testen. Eine Bewertung der verschiedenen Theorien des Bremsvermögens ist jedoch von grosser Bedeutung für die Trägheitsfusion und insbesondere für das Verständnis der Heizung des Fusionsbrennstoffs mittels Alpha-Teilchen. Zum ersten Mal wurden präzisen Messungen in einer reproduzierbaren und vollständig bekannten Strahl-Plasma Einstellung durchgeführt. Sie besteht in einem vollionisierten Ionenstrahl, der mit einem homogenen und vollionisierten Plasma wechselwirkt. Das Plasma wurde von der Bestrahlung einer dünnen Kohlenstofffolie mit zwei hochenergetischen Laserstrahlen erzeugt, und weist eine maximale Elektronentemperatur von 200 eV auf. Die Plasmaparameter wurden mithilfe eines zweidimensionalen radiativen hydrodynamischen Codes simuliert, während die Ladungsverteilung des Ionenstrahls wurde mit einem Monte-Carlo Code berechnet, der die Umladungsprozesse von Projektilionen im Plasma beschreibt. Um das Plasma bei maximalem Bremsvermögen zu untersuchen, wurde ein hoch-Frequenz gepulster Ionenstrahl zu einer Energie von 0.5 MeV pro Nukleon heruntergebremst. Der Ionenenergieverlust wurde mit der Flugzeitsmethode mit einem gegen Plasmastrahlung abgeschirmten CVD-Diamant-Detektor gemessen. Eine erste experimentelle Kampagne wurde mit dem neuen Aufbau durchgeführt, in der eine Messungspräzision besser als 200 keV auf dem Energieverlust erreicht wurde. Dies ermöglichte, mit der Kenntnis der Plasma- und Strahlparameter, mehreren Bremsvermögen-Theorien zuverlässig zu testen und zu vergleichen. Eine vorläufige Datenanalyse zeigt, dass die Energiedeposition bei maximalem Bremsvermögen ist kleiner, als insbesondere von den störungstheoretischen Ansätzen vorhergesagt wurde.