One of the most costly diseases in the dairy industry is mastitis, which is an inflammation of the mammary gland. Mastitis influences the quality of milk and therefore reduces financial returns to both the farmer and the processor. Early detection of mastitis typically reduces treatment cost and a significant amount of research has been done in this field. Currently, the three major methods for mastitis detection are: • The Foss Analysis, which physically counts each cell and is performed off-site. • The Whiteside Test, which is based on a direct relationship between the number of the blood cells and the intensity of a gel formed between NaOH and cells. It was developed for on-site mastitis detection, but is no longer used routinely. • The California Mastitis Test (CMT), which can be done on-site, but is only a quantitative indication of the severity of the infection. The California Mastitis Test has previously been adapted to determine the somatic cell count (SCC) in infected milk by correlating viscosity to cell count. Although highly successful, some uncertainty exists regarding the rheology of the gel formed during the test as well as factors that may influence the accuracy of the test. In this thesis, studies were undertaken on the rheology of the gel formed during the California Mastitis Test in order to develop an understanding of the mechanism of gel formation and how various factors influence the rheology of the gel. Basic biochemistry and physico-chemistry of the gel has been reviewed and it was found that the CMT gel is a DNA/histone/surfactant complex, which forms when SDS is introduced into infected milk with elevated somatic cell counts. Based on literature and some initial experimentation it was found that the gel is a time- and sheardependent, non-Newtonian fluid. Since the reliability of the CMT hinges on the correlation between viscosity and SCC, this study investigated specific factors that may influence gelation, these were: iii • rheology • testing conditions, such as time delay prior to viscosity testing, shear rate and temperature • surfactant type and concentration • milk composition, including fat content, somatic cell count and protein content. It was found that when using capillary viscometry a linear relationship exists between the relative viscosity of the gel and the SCC. The surfactant concentration determines the slope of this linear relationship and it was found that at least 3% SDS is necessary for accurate results. Using more than 3% SDS resulted in more scatter in the data. It was also found that a linear relationship exists between the maximum apparent viscosity and SCC. Either capillary or Brookfield viscometry can be used, however, Brookfield viscometry was found to be more sensitive at the lower SCC range. It was found that the combination of surfactant concentration and SCC influenced the rheology of the gel. The lower the SCC the more SDS was required for gel formation. It was found that when using 1% SDS the critical SCC was 79 k cell/ml, while using 3% SDS this was lowered to 59 k cell/ml. It was found that above the critical SCC the gel is a non-Newtonian rheopectic fluid. Dependent on shear rate, the gel shows rheodestructive behaviour. With a delay time, the peak viscosity of the gel formed faster with longer delay times. However, more than 30 seconds delay had no additional influence on gel formation. It was found that the shear rate or spindle speed influences both the time to reach the peak viscosity as well as the magnitude of this maximum. Higher shear rates shortened the time to reach the maximum apparent viscosity as well as the maximum viscosity. This is likely due to physical breakdown of the gel which is accelerated due to increased shear. Different surfactants have different effects on raw milk. Both acetic acid and Triton- 114 were found to be ineffective as CMT reagents. Acetic acid only denatures proteins and the increased viscosity is due to the precipitation of casein. Triton-114 cannot lyse nuclei walls and therefore gel formation was prohibited due to no DNA/histone complexes being released. Mixing SDS with Triton-114 was found to be less effective than SDS alone either due to the nucleus not being lysed, or because iv of interaction effects between SDS and Triton-114, reducing the available SDS for gelation. Lastly it was concluded that protein and fat content only contributes to the viscosity of milk by changing the solids content of milk and neither of these affects gelation during the CMT. Also, temperature only has a small influence on the relative viscosity and this influence could be neglected if the CMT is done around room temperature.

Data were collected from a 1,000 cow commercial dairy unit during three different time periods to determine the interrelationships between teat shape, teat erosion, mastitis (as measured by the California Mastitis Test and somatic cell counts), and milk production. Results showed no relationship between teat shape or teat end erosion and milk or fat production. The relationship between teat end erosion and mastitis appeared to be masked by the high level of teat erosion. There was an indication that cows with flat and cone shaped teat ends were prone to higher California Mastitis Test scores than cows with pointed, round, or disk shaped teat ends. Pointed teat ends showed the highest amount of erosion and cone and flat teat ends showed the least amount of erosion. There was a high correlation between the California Mastitis Test and somatic cell counts. Teat end erosion and California Mastitis Test scores decreased and milk production increased when a change in milking equipment and milking technique occurred and teat dipping was instigated.

A mastite subclínica em caprinos é causada principalmente pelo Staphylococcus spp., sendo os estafilococos coagulase negativa (SCN) os patógenos de maior ocorrência e o S. aureus, a espécie de estafilococos mais pesquisada. Dessa forma, pouco se conhece sobre a patogenicidade de SCN e outros estafilococos coagulase positiva (SCP), além do S. aureus. Também há poucos estudos sobre a variação da viabilidade celular na mastite subclínica de cabras. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi determinar os fatores de virulência de adesão e produção de biofilme de estirpes de Staphylococcus spp. isoladas de amostras de leite de cabras, verificando possíveis associações com a viabilidade celular. Para realizar a colheita das amostras, primeiramente, foi efetuada um exame físico da glândula mamária, com posterior realização dos testes da caneca de fundo preto e California mastitis test (CMT). A colheita do leite foi efetuada em três alíquotas: análises microbiológicas, contagem de células somáticas (CCS) e viabilidade celular. Realizou-se a identificação, teste de antibiograma e PCR (Reação em cadeia polimerase) dos Staphylococcus spp. isolados nas amostras de leite. Os genes de virulência pesquisados no PCR foram: cna, eno, ebpS, fnbA, fnbB, fib e bap. Avaliou-se a quantidade de CCS, em equipamento de citometria de fluxo, e a viabilidade celular, após centrifugações das amostras de leite e visualização das células em microscópio, utilizando o corante azul de Trypan. Os resultados foram: 122 amostras com crescimento bacteriano e dessas, 110 (90,2%) foram identificadas como Staphylococcus spp., sendo 90 (73,8%) de SCN e 12 (16,4%) de SCP. As espécies mais isoladas de estafilococos foram: S. epidermidis (24,55%), S. lugdunensis (15,40%) e S. intermedius (13,64%). As amostras apresentaram maior resistência aos antimicrobianos: penicilina (81,8%), oxacilina (60,0%) e ampicilina (55,5%). Observou-se maior sensibilidade para: enrofloxacina (99,1%), eritromicina (98,2%), gentamicina (98,2%) e vancomicina (98,2%). Com relação aos fatores de virulência pesquisados, foram encontradas amostras positivas para todos os genes, com exceção do gene fnbB: eno (53,6%), bap (43,7%), ebpS (19,1%), fnbA (18,2%) e fib (16,4%). Mais de um gene foi detectado em algumas estirpes, sendo que as associações de maior ocorrência foram: bap/eno em SCN e ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA em SCP. Os valores da CCS das amostras de leite com isolamento de Staphylococcus spp., SCN e SCP foram maiores do que nas amostras sem isolamento bacteriano e as estirpes com presença da associação de genes ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA apresentaram maior CCS do que bap/eno. Com relação à viabilidade celular, as amostras com isolamento de Staphylococcus spp. apresentaram maior viabilidade celular do que as amostras sem isolamento bacteriano e não houve associação dos genes identificados nas estirpes com a viabilidade celular. Concluiu-se que os genes eno e bap apresentaram maior ocorrência nas estirpes de Staphylococcus spp., sendo os mais encontrados nos isolados de SCN e os genes ebpS, fib e fnbA foram os mais detectados nos SCP. A viabilidade celular foi maior nas amostras com isolamento de Staphylococcus spp. em relação as sem isolamento bacteriano e não houve associação entre os fatores de virulência das estirpes de Staphylococcus spp. e a viabilidade celular. / Subclinical mastitis in goats is mainly caused by Staphylococcus spp., coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) is the most frequent pathogens and S. aureus, the most researched specie of staphylococci. Thus, little is known about the pathogenicity of SCN and other coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS), beyond the S. aureus. There are few studies on the variation of cell viability in subclinical mastitis of goats. The aim of the present study was to determine the virulence factors of adhesion and biofilm production of Staphylococcus spp. strains isolated from milk samples of goats, verifying for possible associations with cell viability. To collect samples, firstly, was performed a physical examination of the mammary gland, with subsequent tests for mug of black background and California mastitis test (CMT). Three aliquots of milk were collected: microbiological analysis, somatic cell count (SCC) and cell viability. Identification, antibiotic susceptibility testing and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) were performed of Staphylococcus spp. isolated from milk samples. Virulence genes researched in PCR were: cna, eno, ebpS, fnbA, fnbB, fib and bap. Evaluation of CCS, using flow cytometry equipment, and cell viability, after centrifugation of milk samples and visualization the cells in the microscope using Trypan blue dye, were performed. The results were: from 122 samples with bacterial growth, 110 (90.2%) were identified as Staphylococcus spp., 90 (73.8%) of CNP and 12 (16.4%) of the CNP. The most isolated staphylococci species were: S. epidermidis (24.55%), S. lugdunensis (15.40%) and S. intermedius (13.64%). Samples showed higher resistance to antimicrobials: penicillin (81.8%), oxacillin (60.0%) and ampicillin (55.5%). We observed higher sensitivity to: enrofloxacin (99.1%), erythromycin (98.2%), gentamicin (98.2%) and vancomycin (98.2%). Regarding virulence factors researched, positive samples were found for all genes, except fnbB gene: eno (53.6%), bap (43.7%), ebpS (19.1%), fnbA (18.2%) and fib (16.4%). More than one gene were detected in some strains, with the most frequent associations were bap/eno in CNS and ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA in CNP. The values of SCC of milk samples with isolation of Staphylococcus spp., CNS and CNP were higher than samples without bacterial isolation and the isolation of strains with combination of ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA genes showed higher SCC than bap/eno. Regarding cell viability, samples with isolation of Staphylococcus spp. showed higher cell viability than samples without bacterial isolation and there was no association of the genes identified in strains with cell viability. In conclusion, eno and bap genes were more frequent in Staphylococcus spp. strains, eno and bap genes were mostly found in isolated CNS and ebpS, fib and fnbA genes were more detected in CNP. Cell viability was higher in samples with isolation of Staphylococcus spp. compared those without bacterial isolation and there was no association between the virulence factors of Staphylococcus spp. strains and cell viability.

A mastite subclínica em caprinos é causada principalmente pelo Staphylococcus spp., sendo os estafilococos coagulase negativa (SCN) os patógenos de maior ocorrência e o S. aureus, a espécie de estafilococos mais pesquisada. Dessa forma, pouco se conhece sobre a patogenicidade de SCN e outros estafilococos coagulase positiva (SCP), além do S. aureus. Também há poucos estudos sobre a variação da viabilidade celular na mastite subclínica de cabras. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi determinar os fatores de virulência de adesão e produção de biofilme de estirpes de Staphylococcus spp. isoladas de amostras de leite de cabras, verificando possíveis associações com a viabilidade celular. Para realizar a colheita das amostras, primeiramente, foi efetuada um exame físico da glândula mamária, com posterior realização dos testes da caneca de fundo preto e California mastitis test (CMT). A colheita do leite foi efetuada em três alíquotas: análises microbiológicas, contagem de células somáticas (CCS) e viabilidade celular. Realizou-se a identificação, teste de antibiograma e PCR (Reação em cadeia polimerase) dos Staphylococcus spp. isolados nas amostras de leite. Os genes de virulência pesquisados no PCR foram: cna, eno, ebpS, fnbA, fnbB, fib e bap. Avaliou-se a quantidade de CCS, em equipamento de citometria de fluxo, e a viabilidade celular, após centrifugações das amostras de leite e visualização das células em microscópio, utilizando o corante azul de Trypan. Os resultados foram: 122 amostras com crescimento bacteriano e dessas, 110 (90,2%) foram identificadas como Staphylococcus spp., sendo 90 (73,8%) de SCN e 12 (16,4%) de SCP. As espécies mais isoladas de estafilococos foram: S. epidermidis (24,55%), S. lugdunensis (15,40%) e S. intermedius (13,64%). As amostras apresentaram maior resistência aos antimicrobianos: penicilina (81,8%), oxacilina (60,0%) e ampicilina (55,5%). Observou-se maior sensibilidade para: enrofloxacina (99,1%), eritromicina (98,2%), gentamicina (98,2%) e vancomicina (98,2%). Com relação aos fatores de virulência pesquisados, foram encontradas amostras positivas para todos os genes, com exceção do gene fnbB: eno (53,6%), bap (43,7%), ebpS (19,1%), fnbA (18,2%) e fib (16,4%). Mais de um gene foi detectado em algumas estirpes, sendo que as associações de maior ocorrência foram: bap/eno em SCN e ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA em SCP. Os valores da CCS das amostras de leite com isolamento de Staphylococcus spp., SCN e SCP foram maiores do que nas amostras sem isolamento bacteriano e as estirpes com presença da associação de genes ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA apresentaram maior CCS do que bap/eno. Com relação à viabilidade celular, as amostras com isolamento de Staphylococcus spp. apresentaram maior viabilidade celular do que as amostras sem isolamento bacteriano e não houve associação dos genes identificados nas estirpes com a viabilidade celular. Concluiu-se que os genes eno e bap apresentaram maior ocorrência nas estirpes de Staphylococcus spp., sendo os mais encontrados nos isolados de SCN e os genes ebpS, fib e fnbA foram os mais detectados nos SCP. A viabilidade celular foi maior nas amostras com isolamento de Staphylococcus spp. em relação as sem isolamento bacteriano e não houve associação entre os fatores de virulência das estirpes de Staphylococcus spp. e a viabilidade celular. / Subclinical mastitis in goats is mainly caused by Staphylococcus spp., coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) is the most frequent pathogens and S. aureus, the most researched specie of staphylococci. Thus, little is known about the pathogenicity of SCN and other coagulase-positive staphylococci (CPS), beyond the S. aureus. There are few studies on the variation of cell viability in subclinical mastitis of goats. The aim of the present study was to determine the virulence factors of adhesion and biofilm production of Staphylococcus spp. strains isolated from milk samples of goats, verifying for possible associations with cell viability. To collect samples, firstly, was performed a physical examination of the mammary gland, with subsequent tests for mug of black background and California mastitis test (CMT). Three aliquots of milk were collected: microbiological analysis, somatic cell count (SCC) and cell viability. Identification, antibiotic susceptibility testing and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) were performed of Staphylococcus spp. isolated from milk samples. Virulence genes researched in PCR were: cna, eno, ebpS, fnbA, fnbB, fib and bap. Evaluation of CCS, using flow cytometry equipment, and cell viability, after centrifugation of milk samples and visualization the cells in the microscope using Trypan blue dye, were performed. The results were: from 122 samples with bacterial growth, 110 (90.2%) were identified as Staphylococcus spp., 90 (73.8%) of CNP and 12 (16.4%) of the CNP. The most isolated staphylococci species were: S. epidermidis (24.55%), S. lugdunensis (15.40%) and S. intermedius (13.64%). Samples showed higher resistance to antimicrobials: penicillin (81.8%), oxacillin (60.0%) and ampicillin (55.5%). We observed higher sensitivity to: enrofloxacin (99.1%), erythromycin (98.2%), gentamicin (98.2%) and vancomycin (98.2%). Regarding virulence factors researched, positive samples were found for all genes, except fnbB gene: eno (53.6%), bap (43.7%), ebpS (19.1%), fnbA (18.2%) and fib (16.4%). More than one gene were detected in some strains, with the most frequent associations were bap/eno in CNS and ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA in CNP. The values of SCC of milk samples with isolation of Staphylococcus spp., CNS and CNP were higher than samples without bacterial isolation and the isolation of strains with combination of ebpS/eno/fib/fnbA genes showed higher SCC than bap/eno. Regarding cell viability, samples with isolation of Staphylococcus spp. showed higher cell viability than samples without bacterial isolation and there was no association of the genes identified in strains with cell viability. In conclusion, eno and bap genes were more frequent in Staphylococcus spp. strains, eno and bap genes were mostly found in isolated CNS and ebpS, fib and fnbA genes were more detected in CNP. Cell viability was higher in samples with isolation of Staphylococcus spp. compared those without bacterial isolation and there was no association between the virulence factors of Staphylococcus spp. strains and cell viability.