Thesis (Ph. D.)--Pennsylvania State University, 1968. / Includes bibliographical references.

Coral reefs are the proverbial rainforests of the ocean, but these spectacular structures are under threat from globally rising sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification. The Red Sea and the Persian/Arabian Gulf (PAG) display unusually high sea surface temperatures, and therefore, provide a model for studying environmental change. Corals are so-called holobionts consisting of the coral host, photosynthetic algae (Symbiodiniaceae), along with other microorganisms, such as bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses. While the importance of bacteria to coral holobiont functioning is acknowledged, little is known about changes in the microbial communities under natural environmental stressors in the Red Sea and the PAG. Accordingly, I investigated microbial community and mucus differences in bleached, healthy, and diseased corals. Analysis of the composition of mucus-associated microbial communities of bleached and healthy Porites lobata colonies from the Red Sea and the PAG were stable, although some regional differences were present. In a distinct study investigating coral disease, a broad range of corals in the Red Sea were shown to be infected with black band disease (BBD). Investigating the microbial community associated with BBD revealed the presence of the three main indicators for BBD (cyanobacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), and sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (SOB). Last, I investigated the chemical composition (carbohydrates) of the surface mucus layer of a range of Red Sea corals. Given that coral mucus represents a first line of defense, I was interested to examine whether mucus carbohydrate composition would point to a role of adaptation to the extreme environment of the Red Sea. This analysis showed that mucus consists of conserved sugars that are globally conserved. In summary, this thesis characterizes the microbial communities associated with a range of coral species in different health states (bleached, healthy, and diseased). The microbial community patterns I characterized support the notion that bacteria contribute to coral holobiont health and possibly adaptation to extreme environmental conditions in the Red Sea and PAG.

The main objective of this research project was to study the growth and development of the floral nectar spur of Centranthus ruber (L.) DC. Nectar spurs are tubular floral outgrowths, generally derived from the perianth organs, which typically contain secreted floral nectar. The morphological characteristics of the spur, particularly the length, determine which floral visitors will be able to access the nectar reward pooled at the spur tip. Therefore, nectar spurs are ecologically important for the development of specialised pollinator interactions and have been demonstrated to act as key innovations in the evolution of some taxa. Morphological and anatomical characteristics of the spur and floral nectary were investigated using light and scanning electron microscopy. Ultrastructural features of the nectar spur, particularly the floral nectary within, were assessed using transmission electron microscopy. Nectar in C. ruber is produced by a trichomatous nectary which runs along the entire, inner abaxial surface of the spur. The nectary is aligned with the single vascular bundle which runs along the abaxial side of the spur, through the sub-nectary parenchyma, and back up the adaxial side. The secretory trichomes are unicellular and, in late development, they develop a thick layer of secondary wall ingrowths which vastly increases the surface area of the plasma membrane for nectar secretion. Elongate, non-secretory trichomes occupy the entire remaining circumference of the spur’s inner epidermis, but their density is reduced compared to the secretory trichomes. The cellular basis for spur growth is poorly characterized in the literature. Until recently, it was assumed that all nectar spurs grow by the constant production of new cells via up to three potential meristematic regions (the meristem hypothesis, Tepfer 1953). The cellular basis for spur growth in C. ruber was investigated by cell file counts and cell length and width measurements along the lateral side of nectar spurs in each of the developmental stages. DAPI stained spurs were also examined with Confocal/Apotome microscopy to determine the timing and position of cell division activity throughout spur development. It was determined that elongation of the spur epidermal cells contributes much more to spur growth than cell division. In early development, division is the primary driver of spur growth and the cells are isotropic. However, as development progresses, cell division activity slows down and the spur cells become increasingly anisotropic until anthesis. The patterns of nectar secretion were determined by assessing the volume, solute concentration and carbohydrate composition of the nectar throughout flowering phenology in two C. ruber plants. Nectar volumes and solute amounts rose initially, followed by an eventual decline in both as phenology progressed towards senescence. Because this study was conducted on greenhouse grown plants, it can be assumed that nectar was not removed by insects, suggesting that it is likely reabsorbed following secretion. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis determined that C. ruber's nectar is sucrose dominant and that nectar composition remains stable following anthesis throughout floral phenology.