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yes / The non-isothermal kinetic and thermal behaviour of a naturally formed dolomite in conditions that approach in situ CO2 capture in chemical looping reforming, were investigated. The performance of this dolomite was studied at micro-scale in ‘dry’ conditions, as well as at macro-scale in ‘dry’ and ‘wet’ conditions to investigate the effects of scale (3 mg, 2.5 g), partial pressures of CO2 (<15 kPa) and steam, and deactivation upon limited cycling. The carbonation and calcination kinetics were modelled using an improved iterative Coats–Redfern method. Increasing CO2 partial pressures on the ‘dry’ macroscale exacerbated the experimental carbonation conversions in an inversely proportional trend when compared with those at micro-scale. The presence of steam had a positive effect on CO2 chemisorption. Steam had a negligible influence on the calcination activation energies. The activation energies of carbonation were increased for the experiments at the highest CO2 partial pressures under wet conditions.

Cette thèse porte sur la problématique de réduction des émissions de gaz à effet de serre par captage et stockage du dioxyde de carbone (CO2) contenu dans les effluents industriels. Les procédés de captage concernés reposent sur l’absorption sélective du CO2 par des solutions aqueuses d’alcanolamines. Les mécanismes physico-chimiques d’absorption mis en jeu sont étudiés à l’aide de modèles thermodynamiques. Leur développement est complexe et la prédiction précise des données physico-chimiques, nécessaires à l’optimisation des procédés industriels de captage, reste difficile. Le développement d’outils permettant une représentation détaillée des structures microscopiques permettrait l’optimisation de ces modèles. Ces outils fourniraient également des informations pour l’établissement de relations structure-propriété nécessaires au design d’absorbants adaptés au captage en post-combustion. Les travaux de recherche ont porté sur l’évaluation du pouvoir prédictif des outils de simulation moléculaire et leur capacité à établir des relations entre la structure des absorbants, les interactions moléculaires et les propriétés physicochimiques macroscopiques. Les outils développés ont été construits afin de permettre leur transférabilité entre alcanolamines. L’étude repose sur des mesures calorimétriques et des travaux de simulation par dynamique moléculaire menés en parallèle. Elle porte sur des alcanolamines primaires, pures ou en solutions aqueuses, basées sur le squelette N-C-C-O, incluant la monoéthanolamine (MEA). La mise en évidence d’un effet d’ouverture des liaisons hydrogène intramoléculaires des alcanolamines en fonction de leur composition semble être à la base de la différenciation du comportement énergétique des systèmes binaires {alcanolamine + eau}. L’identification des différents types d’interactions engagés a permis de mettre en lumière un effet hydrophobe. L’ensemble des analyses explique certaines limites des modèles thermodynamiques classiques et constitue un guide pour leur amélioration, notamment par la prise en compte de l’effet de composition. / This thesis focuses on the problem of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by capture and storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial effluents. The capture processes concerned is based on the selective absorption of CO2 by aqueous solutions of alkanolamines. In industry and academia, the physico-chemical mechanisms of absorption are described using thermodynamic models. Their development is complex and the prediction of physicochemical data, which is necessary to optimize industrial capture processes, remains difficult. The development of molecular models for a detailed representation of microscopic structures would improve these models. These molecular models also provide information for the establishment of structure-property relationships which are necessary to design absorbants adapted to post-combustion capture. This doctoral research project has focused on assessing the predictive power of molecular simulation methods and their ability to establish relationships between the structure of absorbents, molecular interactions and macroscopic physico-chemical properties. The molecular interaction models were built to allow their transferability between alkanolamines. The study is based on calorimetric measurements and molecular dynamics simulation run in parallel. It covers primary alkanolamines, pure or in aqueous solutions, based on the N-C-C-O skeleton, including monoethanolamine (MEA). With varying composition of the {alkanolamine + water} mixtures, there is a competition between the intramolecular hydrogen bond of the alkanolamines (between the amino and hydroxyl group) and the hydrogen bonds with water molecules. This effect of opening of the intramolecular hydrogen bonds is related in this work with the value of the enthalpy of mixing. Also, this effect is of different magnitude for different alkanolamines and therefore the present model represents correctly different molecules. Evidence of the role of the hydrophobic effect is also given through an analysis of the different terms in the interactions. The main results of the present work are detailed analyses at the molecular level of the interactions present in the {alkanolamine + water} mixtures and how these determine the macroscopic thermodynamics of mixing. This knowledge at the molecular scale can provide a guide to the improvement of thermodynamic models.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Coal combustion accounts for 95% of electricity generation in South Africa while globally coal combustion for energy generation stands at 42%. It has been predicted that coal utilization for energy generation will continue due to its low cost and availability in huge quantities in different parts of the world. Additionally brine and gaseous emissions are produced in the power generation and coal combustion processes. In fact, it has been established that CO2 emissions from power plants are the main cause of the green-house effect leading to global warming. Mitigation of the effects of disposal of fly ash, brine and CO2 emissions is critical for sustainable energy generation from coal and environmental protection. The study investigated whether South African coal fly ash could be used for brine remediation and CO2 capture using fly ash based hydrotalcites and zeolites. Four main objectives were investigated. These were; firstly, to compare the natural CO2 capture potential of a power station ash dam with an accelerated ex-situ mineral carbonation process. Secondly, to probe the effect of accelerated ex-situ mineral carbonation on brine quality with regards to major, minor and trace elements concentration. Furthermore, the study investigated the feasibility of synthesizing hydrotalcites from fly ash by optimizing the synthesis parameters such as acid concentration, aging time, aging temperature, pH during aging, crystallization time and crystallization temperature. Finally the study compared the CO2 adsorption capacities of the fly ash based hydrotalcites with fly ash based zeolites NaA, and NaX. The natural carbonation potential of the wet disposed ash dam at Secunda was investigated by coring a 20 year old dam. Three cores (SI, S2 and S3) were obtained by air flush coring the dam along a geophysical line and establishing the geophysical profile of the three cores. The surface of the three cores was of medium resistivity with values between 9.3 and 12.2 nm while the midsections were of low resistivity with values ranging between 4 and 7 nm. The base section of core SI had a resistivity of 28.3 nm, that of S2 was between 16.2 and 21.4 nm and that of S3 between 12.2 and 16.2 nm; implying that SI had the lowest salt load while S3 had the highest salt content. Moisture content was observed to be high deeper down the profiles of S2 and S3 with samples appearing water logged while SI had the highest moisture content at the surface showing the inhomogeneity of the ash dam. The morphology of fresh fly ash taken from the ash collection hoppers at Secunda was observed to be spherical. Weathered ash from the ash dam showed irregularly agglomerated particles while accelerated ex-situ mineral carbonation resulted in the formation of acicular particles of calcite. Fresh ash, weathered ash and the accelerated carbonated ash were all class F with a sum total of silica, alumina and iron oxide totaling more than 70%. A reduction in silica and alumina content with instability of fly ash. Dumping of spent iron catalyst (resulting from the petrochemical operations as Sasol) on the ash dam led to an increase in Fe203 content of the weathered ash. Enrichment of Nb, Sr, Y, Th, Na, Cl, S04, K and S with natural carbonation as well as during accelerated ex-situ mineral carbonation was observed and was due to the contact of ash with brine during these two processes. Reduction of Zr, Rb, Pb, Ni, Co and V content of ash was observed with weathering. Mineralogically, all the ash samples had main phases of mullite, quartz, magnetite and hematite, with weathered and accelerated carbonated ash having additional phases of calcite. The aluminosilicious nature of the three ashes was identified by structural evaluation using Fourier transform infrared analysis which revealed that, bands associated with C-O in-plane and out of plane bending of carbonates was only visible in weathered and carbonated ash.

Porous organic polymers containing nitrogen-rich building units are among the most promising materials for selective CO2 capture and separation applications that impact the environment and the quality of methane and hydrogen fuels. The work described herein describes post-synthesis modification of Nanoporous Organic Frameworks (NPOFs) and its impact on gas storage and selective CO2 capture. The synthesis of NPOF-4 was accomplished via a catalysed cyclotrimerization reaction of 1,3,5,7-tetrakis(4-acetylphenyl)adamantane in Ethanol/Xylenes mixture using SiCl4 as a catalyst. NPOF-4 is microporous and has high surface area (SABET = 1249 m2 g-1). Post-synthesis modification of NPOF-4 by nitration afforded (NPOF-4-NO2) and subsequent reduction resulted in an amine-functionalized framework (NPOF-4-NH2) that exhibits improved gas storage capacities and high CO2/N2 (139) and CO2/CH4 (15) selectivities compared to NPOF-4 under ambient conditions. These results demonstrate the impact of nitro- and amine- pore decoration on the function of porous organic materials in gas storage and separation application.

Design and synthesis of porous organic polymers have attracted considerable attentions during the past decade due to their wide range of applications in gas storage, gas separation, energy conversion, and catalysis. Porous organic polymers can be pre-synthetically and post-synthetically functionalized with a wide variety of functionalities for desirable applications. Along these pursuits, we introduced new synthetic strategies for preparation of porous organic polymers for selective CO2 capture. Porous azo-linked polymers (ALPs) were synthesized by an oxidative reaction of amine-based monomers using copper(I) as a catalyst which leads to azo-linkage formation. ALPs exhibit high surface areas of up to 1200 m2 g-1 and have high chemical and thermal stabilities. The nitrogen atoms of the azo group can act as Lewis bases and the carbon atom of CO2 can act as a Lewis acid. Therefore, ALPs show high CO2 uptake capacities due to this Lewis acid-based interaction. The potential applications of ALPs for selective CO2 capture from flue gas, natural gas, and landfill gas under pressure-swing and vacuum swing separation settings were studied. Due to their high CO2 uptake capacity, selectivity, regenerability, and working capacity, ALPs are among the best porous organic frameworks for selective CO2 capture. In our second project, a new bis(imino)pyridine-linked porous polymer (BIPLP-1) was synthesized and post-synthetically functionalized with Cu(BF4)2 for highly selective CO2 capture. BIPLP-1 was synthesized via a condensation reaction between 2,6-pyridinedicarboxaldehyde and 1,3,5-tris(4-aminophenyl)benzene, wherein the bis(imino)pyridine linkages are formed in-situ during polymerization. The functionalization of the polymer with Cu(BF4)2 was achieved by treatment of the polymer with a solution of Cu(BF4)2 via complexation of copper cations with bis(imino)pyridine moieties of the polymer. BF4- ions can act Lewis base and CO2 can act as a Lewis acid; and therefore, the functionalized polymer shows high binding affinity for CO2 due to this Lewis acid-based interaction. The functionalization of the pores with Cu(BF4)2 resulted in a significant enhancement in CO2 binding energy, CO2 uptake capacity, and CO2 selectivity values. Due to high reactivity of bis(imino)pyridines toward transitions metals, BIPLP-1 can be post-synthetically functionalized with a wide variety of inorganic species for CO2 separation and catalytic applications.

Porous organic polymers (POPs) with high physicochemical stability have attracted significant attention from the scientific community as promising platforms for small gas separation adsorbents. Although POPs have amorphous morphology in general, with the help of organic chemistry toolbox, ultrahigh surface area materials can be synthesized. In particular, nitrogen-rich POPs have been studied intensively due to their enhanced framework-CO2 interactions. Postsynthetic modification (PSM) of POPs has been instrumental for incorporating different functional groups into the pores of POPs which would increase the CO2 capture properties. We have shown that functionalizing the surface of POPs with nitro and amine groups increases the CO/N2 and CO2/CH4 selectivity significantly due to selective polarization of CO2 molecule. In addition, controlled postsynthetic nitration of NPOF-1, a nanoporous organic framework constructed by nickel(0)-catalyzed Yamamoto coupling of 1,3,5-tris(4-bromophenyl)benzene, has been performed and is proven to be a promising route to introduce nitro groups and to convert mesopores to micropores without compromising surface area. Reduction of the nitro groups yields aniline-like amine-functionalized NPOF-1-NH2. Adequate basicity of the amine functionalities leads to modest isosteric heats of adsorption for CO2, which allow for high regenerability. The unique combination of high surface area, microporous structure, and amine-functionalized pore walls enables NPOF-1-NH2 to have remarkable CO2 working capacity values for removal from landfill gas and flue gas. Benzimidazole-linked polymers have also been shown to have promising CO2 capture properties. Here, an amine functionalized benzimidazole-linked polymer (BILP-6-NH2) was synthesized via a combination of pre- and postsynthetic modification techniques in two steps. Experimental studies confirm enhanced CO2 uptake in BILP-6-NH2 compared to BILP-6, and DFT calculations were used to understand the interaction modes of CO2 with BILP-6-NH2. Using BILP-6-NH2, higher CO2 uptake and CO2/CH4 selectivity was achieved compared to BILP-6 showing that this material has a very promising working capacity and sorbent selection parameter for landfill gas separation under VSA settings. Additionally, the sorbent evaluation criteria of different classes of organic polymers have been compared in order to reveal structure-property relationships in those materials as solid CO2 adsorbents.

La capture et le stockage géologique du CO2 constituent une option importante de limitation des émissions de gaz à effet de serre au niveau des pôles industriels et des centrales de production d’énergie. Les gaz capturés à l’issu de ces chaînes de production ne sont pas constitués de CO2 pur mais contiennent une fraction (jusqu’à 10 %) de gaz annexes qui sont essentiellement Ar, N2, SOx et NOx. Ces gaz étant pour la plupart très réactifs il est essentiel de connaître leur impact sur les conditions physico-chimiques du réservoir géologique d’accueil, ainsi que sur l’environnement dans le cas d’une de contamination des aquifères voisins du stockage. Des expérimentations en laboratoire ont simulé le vieillissement de roches de réservoir et couverture en provenance d’un réservoir carbonaté du Bassin aquitain et d’assemblages minéralogiques synthétiques dans des conditions de séquestration géologique. Les roches associées à une saumure sont altérées au contact de divers composés gazeux à 100 bar et 150°C sur une durée d’un mois : CO2 pur, SO2, NO pur et un mélange contenant majoritairement du CO2 et des fractions de Ar, N2, SO2, O2. Chaque expérience est comparée à une expérience témoin où le composé gazeux est remplacé par de l’azote. Le CO2 ne montre qu’une réactivité limitée sur les minéraux des roches. Le NO et le SO2 montrent une réactivité intrinsèque passant par des dismutations en phase aqueuse ou vapeur induisant une forte altération de la roche par une attaque acide couplée à une oxydation poussée des minéraux constitutifs des roches. Le mélange de gaz montre de la même façon une réactivité double : le S02 s’oxyde en acide sulfurique s’attaquant aux carbonates et minéraux argileux et l’O2 oxyde tous les minéraux possédant du fer ou du soufre réduit. Les gaz annexes contrôlent donc la réactivité des roches en grande profondeur. Leur présence pourrait complètement changer le comportement des roches (porosité, rhéologique) lors du stockage. Leur implication devra être anticipée dans chaque cas concret de stockage en fonction de la composition du gaz d’injection, de la minéralogie et des propriétés pétrophysiques des roches. / Capture and geological storage of CO2 are an main option to limit GHEG emissions of industrial poles and power plants. The captured gases are not constituted by pure CO2 but contain a fraction (until 10 %) of other gases : Ar, N2, SOx and NOx. Most of these gases are highly reactive and could have a strong influence on physical and chemical conditions of the milieu and on the environmement if contamination of neighbour aquifers occurs by leakages. Several laboratory experiments investigated the reactivity of carbonated reservoir and cap rocks from the Aquitaine Basin as well as the reactivity of synthetic mineralogical blends in geologically relevant P-T conditions. The rocks, associated to brine, were altered in presence of various gaseous components at 100 bar and 150°C during one month : pure CO2, pure SO2, pure NO and a CO2 mixture containing fractions of Ar, N2, SO2 and O2. Each experiment was compared with a blank in which the initial gas was replaced with pure N2. Pure CO2 show a limited reactivity on the rocks. NO and SO2 show a intrinsic reactivity by disproportionations in aqueous or vapour phases implying a high alteration of rocks by compled acid – base and oxidation mechanisms. The gas mixture show also a double reactivity : SO2 is oxidized in sulphuric acid dissolving carbonates and clay minerals and O2 oxidizes all reduced mineralogical phases. These gases even in limited fractions control the reactivity of rocks. Their presence could change the behaviour of the rock toward gas and induce positive as well as negative transformations. Their implication must be checked for each geological storage as a function of gas composition, mineralogy and petrophysical.

La séparation du CO2 d'un mélange de gaz par cristallisation d'hydrates de gaz est un procédé qui pourrait à terme présenter une alternative intéressante aux techniques conventionnelles de capture du CO2. L'objectif de cette thèse était d'évaluer le potentiel de ce procédé "hydrates" pour séparer le CO2 d'un mélange CO2-CH4 riche en CO2. Nous avons étudié en particulier la sélectivité de la séparation vis-à-vis du CO2 et la cinétique de cristallisation des hydrates, ainsi que l'effet d'additifs thermodynamiques et cinétiques (et de certaines de leurs combinaisons) sur ces deux paramètres pour différentes conditions opératoires (pression, température, concentrations). Les expériences de formation/décomposition d’hydrates ont été réalisées en mode "batch" dans un réacteur haute pression faisant partie d'un pilote expérimental conçu et construit entièrement pendant cette thèse. Un modèle semi-empirique a été également développé pour estimer le taux de conversion de l’eau en hydrate et la composition des différentes phases en présence (hydrates, liquide et vapeur) à l'équilibre. Les résultats obtenus montrent que l'association du sodium dodécyl sulfate (SDS), utilisé en tant que promoteur cinétique, avec du tétrahydrofurane (THF), utilisé en tant que promoteur thermodynamique, permet d'obtenir des résultats intéressants en terme de quantité d'hydrates formés et de cinétique de formation. La sélectivité de la séparation vis-à-vis du CO2 reste cependant trop faible (en moyenne quatre molécules de CO2 piégées dans la structure de l'hydrate pour une de CH4) pour envisager d’utiliser ce procédé "hydrates" à plus grande échelle afin de séparer le CO2 de ce type de mélange de gaz. / The separation of CO2 from a gas mixture by crystallization of gas hydrates is a process that could eventually provide an attractive alternative to the conventional techniques used for CO2 capture. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the potential of this "hydrate" process to separate CO2 from a CO2-CH4 gas mixture, rich in CO2. We have studied in particular the selectivity of the separation toward CO2 and the hydrate crystallization kinetics. The effects of thermodynamic and kinetic additives (and some additive combinations) on these two parameters for different operating conditions (pressure, temperature, concentrations) were evaluated. Hydrate formation and dissociation experiments were performed in "batch mode” in a high pressure reactor, and with an experimental pilot rig designed and built entirely during this thesis. A semi-empirical model was also developed to estimate the water to hydrate conversion and the composition of the different phases (hydrates, liquid and vapor) at equilibrium. The results show that the combination of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) used as a kinetic promoter, with tetrahydrofuran (THF) used as a thermodynamic promoter, provides interesting results in terms of both the amount of hydrates formed and the hydrate formation kinetics. The selectivity of the separation toward CO2 remains too low (an average of four CO2 molecules trapped in the hydrate structure for one of CH4) to consider using this "hydrate" process on a larger scale to separate CO2 from such a gas mixture.

La capture du dioxyde de carbone (CO2) en postcombustion est une stratégie importante pour la limitation de l’effet de serre. Le procédé de référence est l’absorption du CO2 dans des solutions aqueuses aminées, suivie par une étape de stripage du solvant. La technologie mature associée à ce procédé est la colonne à garnissage. Toutefois, afin de rendre le procédé plus attractif, il convient de l’intensifier en réduisant le volume des équipements et le coût énergétique associé. Les contacteurs membranaires à fibres creuses (CMFC) constituent une alternative aux colonnes à garnissage. Les CMFC permettent de développer d’importantes aires spécifiques conduisant potentiellement à une intensification des transferts gaz-liquide. Ainsi, l’utilisation des CMFC réduirait la taille des installations, mais aussi diminuerait la consommation énergétique par la diminution de la quantité de vapeur de stripage. Cependant, l’utilisation de CMFC dans les étapes d’absorption et de stripage dans des conditions industrielles a été peu étudiée. Afin de combler cette lacune, des modèles à différents niveaux de complexité : monodimensionnel, bidimensionnel, isotherme et adiabatique ont été développés, comparés et validés. Ceci afin d’identifier le niveau de complexité approprié. Les résultats de simulation ont mis en évidence le potentiel d’intensification des CMFC dans l’étape d’absorption et aussi de stripage, se traduisant par une réduction en volume de 4 à 10 fois par rapport aux colonnes à garnissage. Néanmoins, les CMFC peuvent difficilement réduire le coût énergétique du procédé étant donné que l’étape de stripage fonctionne dans des conditions très proches de la limite thermodynamique / Post-combustion CO2 capture (PCC) is an important strategy in mitigating greenhouse effect. The reference process in PCC is the CO2 absorption into amine aqueous solutions, followed by the regeneration (or stripping) of the solvent. The robustness of packed columns makes it the standard technology for both absorption and stripping steps. However, the treatment of large quantities of flue gases requires itself equipment of a large size. Hollow fibre membrane contactors (HFMC) are considered as one of the most promising strategies for intensified CO2 absorption process, due to their significantly higher interfacial area than that of packed columns, allowing to reduce the equipment size. In addition, this would reduce the energy penalty of the process by reducing the required amount of stripping steam. However, despite the potential advantages of HFMC, very few investigations have studied implementing this technology for PCC within an industrial framework. To fill this lack, the performances of both absorption and stripping steps using HFMC under industrial conditions were estimated by modelling and simulation. To identify the optimal modelling strategy, transfer models with different levels of complexity were developed ranging from one-dimensional isothermal single-component to two-dimensional adiabatic multi-component. Simulation results of both absorption and stripping steps revealed that, compared to traditional packed columns, contactor volume reduction factors comprised between 4 and 10 might be achieved using HFMC. However, since the stripping operating conditions are very close to thermodynamic equilibrium, HFMC can hardly reduce the energy consumption of the process