This research aimed to determine whether wood microsites ("nurse logs"), which are regeneration sites in Pacific Northwest (PNW) subalpine forests, supported regeneration at timberline-alpine meadow borders. Upward advance of forests and conifer invasion into alpine meadows, which may be occurring in conjunction with climate warming, have gained worldwide attention. Successful alpine meadow seedling regeneration depends on suitable substrate availability, or microsites, for seedling establishment. To better understand factors associated with wood microsite occurrence, mechanisms of wood input were determined and four specific hypotheses were posed to assess: (1) seedling density and seedling survival; (2) growing season length, summer mean growing temperature, and growing degree hours (GDH); (3) active measures of seedling growth; and (4) global wood microsite climate associations. Of four studies, three were conducted in the Cascade Mountains of Washington state along a west - east precipitation gradient and one study, assessed various microsites globally. For Cascades-related research, wood and adjacent soil substrate temperature, moisture, and associated seedling density, survival, stomatal conductance, water potential, and leaf nitrogen were compared by percent transmitted radiation at 4 to 14 study sites. Analysis of variance (ANOVA), t-tests, regressions, and classification and regression trees (CARTs) were used to assess significance of comparisons. Wood microsites, common at 13 of 14 random Cascade sites, had greater seedling densities, greater seedling survival, greater volumetric moisture content (VWC), greater temperature, and greater number of GDH, as compared to adjacent soils. Greater seedling densities were positively associated with VWC (> 12%), conditions most commonly associated with wood substrate presence. For sites having > 25% percent transmitted radiation, positive relationships existed between stomatal conductance and VWC. Globally, high-elevation forests with wood microsites had mean annual precipitation from 86 cm to 320 cm and mean annual temperatures from 1.5°C to 4.7°C. In general, wood microsites facilitated alpine meadow regeneration better than adjacent soils. Management implications included enhanced understanding of factors associated with upward forest advance and wood use for restoration. Globally, wood microsites importance is likely underrepresented. Wood microsites role with warming climate will depend on precipitation pattern, timing, magnitude, and frequency.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第24400号 / 理博第4899号 / 新制||理||1700(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科物理学・宇宙物理学専攻 / (主査)教授 佐々 真一, 教授 早川 尚男, 准教授 藤 定義 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

The aeration potential of a low profile cascade aerator was studied under varying operational conditions in accordance with the ASCE Standard for Measurement of Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water [ASCE 2-06, 2007]. Operational parameters delved into included the channel slope (2.50, 4.50 and 6.50); water flow rate (465.75 L/min.m (37.5 gpm/ft), 931.45 L/min.m (75 gpm/ft) and 1397.20 L/min.m (112.5 gpm/ft)); and weir geometry (rectangular-shaped, inverted T-shaped, W-shaped and inverted Cross shaped weir). The oxygen transfer coefficient, KLa, was derived by use of a FORTRAN-based nonlinear regression analysis computer program and served to assess the effectiveness of various combinations of operational parameters. Statistical tests (ANOVA analysis and main plot, interactive plot) were performed on the results to determine the optimal operating conditions. It was discovered that the combination of the inverted Cross shaped weir and flow rates of 1397.20 L/min.m (112.5 gpm/ft) produced the highest reaeration rates for all slope considered. On the other hand, the W-shaped weir produced better reaeration values at lower flows of 465.75 L/min.m (37.5 gpm/ft) and 931.45 L/min.m (75 gpm/ft) for the range of channel slopes examined. These effects can be respectively attributed to the strong turbulent mixing generated by the plunging nappe flow and recirculating air vortices, which apparently led to substantial air entrainment in the water mass.

Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithms are widely applied in the chemical process industry. The main advantage of these controllers over others is their ability to provide multivariable control of the process subject to specified constraints. The presence of degrees of freedom in the plant provide an opportunity for the introduction of an optimization level (Real-Time Optimization (RTO) level), to determine optimal set points and target values for controlled variables and manipulated variables respectively, and the constraints the plant should follow to provide maximum profit. Industrial MPC controllers typically include an upper level steady-state optimizer, which usually comprises a linear programming (LP) or quadratic programming (QP) problem. This local optimizer may serve either as an integrating level between the low frequency nonlinear steady-state RTO and regulatory level, or as an independent optimizer with an economic objective function. Many researchers have reported success of LP-MPC cascade control system implementations (Sorensen and Cutler, 1998; Verne et al., 1999). However, despite its apparent success, poor LP-MPC cascade system performance and possible instability have also been reported. In particular, Shah et al. (2002) show that in the presence of a steady-state LP optimizer, the set-points could have a large variation relative to the controlled variable variation; thus the LP could degrade the MPC performance by sending highly variable set-points to the controller. Kozub (2002) indicates that in a control system with an LP steady-state optimizer, an LP instability problem may arise under certain conditions. These observations motivated research which aims to investigate the effect of the various factors on the stability and performance of the two-level LP-MPC cascade control system. Such factors include plant/model mismatch, the frequency of LP implementation, the LP objective function, constraints and type of disturbances. Since the optimization can be executed at different frequencies, two most common scenarios are considered: (i) when the LP is implemented at steady-state only and (ii) when the LP is implemented at every MPC iteration. Initially, steady-state LP optimization only is considered and it is shown that the set-points may fail to converge to constant values in the absence of external disturbances under certain conditions. Then, the effects of optimization frequency and control structure on the closed-loop properties of the LP-MPC control system are investigated. Results of a number of case studies are shown, and root causes for observed behavior discussed. As a part of the regulatory level analysis, the calculation of the closed-loop equilibrium of a process controlled by constrained MPC is studied. This problem arises in process design and operations, and is often applied within an optimization framework. It is shown that the effect of the control system on the resulting steady-state must be explicitly accounted for, and that in the general case, the use of a steady-state process model only is not sufficient for this calculation to be correctly executed. Two solution strategies, sequential and simultaneous, are presented and evaluated. The effect of high frequency noise-like disturbances on the two-level control system behavior is analyzed. The analysis which verified by case studies, showed that the LP may have an effect of amplifying the system noise through the bias term which is used for the model update. Such amplification may result in high variation of the LP set points provided to the MPC, thereby degrading the overall performance of the two-level system. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

The influence of freestream turbulence representative of the flow downstream of a modern gas turbine combustor and first stage vane on turbine blade heat transfer has been measured and analytically modeled in a linear, transonic turbine cascade. Measurements were performed on a high turning, transonic turbine blade. The facility is capable of heated flow with inlet total temperature of 120C and inlet total pressure of 10 psig. The Reynolds number based on blade chord and exit conditions (5x106) and the inlet and exit Mach numbers (0.4 and 1.2, respectively) are representative of conditions in a modern gas turbine engine. High intensity, large length-scale freestream turbulence was generated using a passive turbulence-generating grid to simulate the turbulence generated in modern combustors after it has passed through the first stage vane row. The grid produced freestream turbulence with intensity of approximately 10-12% and an integral length scale of 2 cm near the entrance of the cascade passages, which is believed to be representative of the core flow entering a first stage gas turbine rotor blade row. Mean heat transfer results showed an increase in heat transfer coefficient of approximately 8% on the suction surface of the blade, with increases on the pressure surface on the order of two times higher than on the suction surface (approximately 17%). This corresponds to increases in blade surface temperature of 5-10%, which can significantly reduce the life of a turbine blade. The heat transfer data were compared with correlations from published literature with good agreement. Time-resolved surface heat transfer and passage velocity measurements were performed to investigate and quantify the effects of the turbulence on heat transfer and to correlate velocity fluctuations with heat transfer fluctuations. The data demonstrates strong coherence in velocity and heat flux at a frequency correlating with the most energetic eddies in the turbulence flow field (the integral length-scale). An analytical model was developed to predict increases in surface heat transfer due to freestream turbulence based on local measurements of turbulent velocity fluctuations (u'RMS) and length-scale (Lx). The model was shown to predict measured increases in heat flux on both blade surfaces in the current data. The model also successfully predicted the increases in heat transfer measured in other work in the literature, encompassing different geometries (flat plate, cylinder, turbine vane and turbine blade) as well as both laminar and turbulent boundary layers, but demonstrated limitations in predicting early transition and heat transfer in turbulent boundary layers. Model analyses in the frequency domain provided valuable insight into the scales of turbulence that are most effective at increasing surface heat transfer. / Ph. D.

Speech coding or speech compression is one of the important aspects of speech communications nowadays. By coding the speech, the speed needed to transmit the digitized speech, called the bit rate, can be reduced. This means that for a certain speech communications channel, the lower the bit rate of the speech coding, the more communicating parties can be carried on that channel. This research has as its main application the extraction of the parameters of human speech for speech coding purposes. We propose an RLS-based cascade adaptive filter structure that can significantly reduce the computational effort required by the RLS algorithm for inverse filtering types of applications. We named it the Cascade RLS with Subsection Adaptation (CRLS-SA) algorithm. The reduction in computational effort comes from the fact that, for inverse filtering applications, the gradients of each section in the cascade are almost uncorrelated with the gradients in other sections. Hence, the gradient autocorrelation matrix is assumed to be block diagonal. Since we use a second order filter for each section, the computation of the adaptation involves only the 2x2- gradient autocorrelation matrix for that section, while still being based on a global minimization criterion. The gradient signal of a section itself is defined as the derivative of the overall output error with respect to the coefficients of the particular section, which can be computed efficiently by passing the overall output of the cascade to a filter with coefficients that are derived from the coefficients of that section. The computational effort of the CRLS-SA algorithm is approximately 20*L*N/2, where L is the data record length and N is the order of the filter. We analyze the convergence rate of the CRLS-SA algorithm based on the convergence time constant concept, which is the ratio of the condition number and the sensitivity. The CRLS- SA structure is shown to satisfy the DeBrunner-Beex conjecture which says that a structure with a smaller convergence time constant converges faster than a structure with a larger convergence time constant. We show that CRLS-SA converges faster than the Direct Form RLS (DFRLS) algorithm and that its convergence time constant is lower than that of the direct form. The convergence behavior is verified by looking at how fast the estimated system approaches the true system. Here we use the Itakura distance as the measure of closeness between the estimated and the true system. We show that the Itakura distance associated with the CRLS-SA algorithm approaches zero faster than that associated with the direct form RLS algorithm. The CRLS-SA algorithm is applied in this dissertation to general linear prediction, to the direct adaptive computation of the LSF and their representation in quantized form using a split vector quantization (VQ) approach, and to the detection and tracking of the frequencies in signals consisting of multiple sinusoids in noise. / Ph. D.

Detailed measurements were taken downstream of several modified trailing edge configurations designed to impart streamwise velocity into the flow behind a cascade of GE Rotor B fan blades. These measurements were conducted in the Virginia Tech Low Speed Linear Cascade wind tunnel. The trailing edge configurations tested utilized passive techniques for producing streamwise vorticity, which in turn causes downstream wake diffusion and increased mixing. A more diffuse wake, when it impinges on the downstream stator, will produce lower noise levels as a result of this rotor-stator interaction. Furthermore, increased mixing in the flow will reduce the levels of turbulence kinetic energy observed downstream of the blade trailing edge. Thus, this project seeks to identify which passive techniques of imparting streamwise vorticity are most effective at improving the flow characteristics responsible for some of the noise production in modern jet aircraft. The three trailing edge configurations tested in detail for this project showed significant ability to widen and stretch the downstream wake by utilizing vorticity generation techniques. The TE-8 configuration was the most effective at increasing the wake width downstream of the trailing edge. Additionally, each configuration was able to successfully reduce some of the turbulence kinetic energy levels observed downstream when compared to the baseline blade, the most effective configuration being TE-8. Finally, the momentum thickness of each configuration was measured. When compared to the baseline, the TE-1 configuration showed an increased momentum thickness, TE-8 showed little change, and TE-7 actually showed an improved momentum thickness value. / Master of Science

A large-scale moving end-wall system has been designed and built at the Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Department of Virginia Tech. This system forms part of a low-speed linear compressor cascade wind tunnel, where it is used to simulate the effects of the relative motion between the blade tips and casing upon the flow. Detailed 4-sensor hot wire measurements were made at various locations downstream the cascade. The results are presented in term of mean flow field and turbulence flow field. In order to reveal the effects of moving end wall, the results also compared with the results obtained with stationary end wall. / Master of Science

This experiment investigated the effects of a non-axisymmetric endwall contour and upstream purge flow on the secondary flow of an inlet guide vane. Three cases were tested in a transonic wind tunnel with an exit Mach number of 0.93-a flat endwall with no upstream purge flow, the same flat endwall with upstream purge flow, and a 3D contoured endwall with upstream purge flow. All cases had a backward-facing step upstream of the vanes. Five-hole probe measurements were taken 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 Cx downstream of the vane row trailing edge, and were used to calculate loss coefficient, secondary velocity, and secondary kinetic energy. Additionally, surface static pressure measurements were taken to determine the vane loading at 4% spanwise position. Surface oil flow visualizations were performed to analyze the flow qualitatively. No statistically significant differences were found between the three cases in mass averaged downstream measurements. The contoured endwall redistributed losses, rather than making an improvement distinguishable beyond experimental uncertainty. Flow visualization found that the passage vortex penetrated further in the spanwise direction into the passage for the contoured endwall (compared to the flat endwall), and stayed closer to the endwall with a blowing ratio of 1.5 with a flat endwall (compared to no blowing with flat endwall). This was corroborated by the five hole probe results. / Master of Science / This experiment investigated effects of a specially designed endwall (the wall of a jet engine where the vanes end) and adding extra flow upstream through a slot on the inefficiencies of a jet engine vane (a stationary part of the engine that looks like a wing). Three cases were tested in a high-speed wind tunnel at almost the speed of sound-a flat endwall with no extra flow upstream, the same flat endwall with extra flow upstream, and the specially designed endwall with extra flow upstream. All cases had a backward-facing step (a step in the direction as if you are walking downstairs) upstream of the vanes. Measurements of flow direction and pressure were taken at three locations close to the vanes, and were used to calculate parameters relating to efficiency. Additionally, measurements were taken to verify that the vanes functioned correctly. Different colored paints (that do not stick) were used to see how the flow changed between each case. Measurements showed there were no major differences in overall efficiency between the three cases. The specially designed endwall made some areas more efficient, and others less efficient, rather than making the overall vane more efficient. The colored paints showed that a region of spinning flow went further away from the wall with the specially designed endwall. The paints also found that the same region of spinning flow stayed closer to wall when extra flow was added upstream. This was corroborated by the five hole probe results. The results from the paints agreed with the measurements of flow direction and pressure. In conclusion, neither the specially designed endwall or the extra flow made much difference in the overall efficiency (instead, they made some parts more efficient and other parts less efficient).

The relationship between the plenum to freestream total pressure ratio on film cooling performance is experimentally investigated. Measurements of both the heat transfer coefficient and the adiabatic effectiveness were made on the suction side of the center blade in a linear transonic cascade. Entrance and exit Mach numbers were 0.3 and 1.2 respectively. Reynolds number based on chord and exit conditions is 3 x 10⁶. The blade contour is representative of a typical General Electric first stage, high turning, turbine blade. Tunnel freestream conditions were 10 psig total pressure and approximately 80 °C. A chilled air coolant film was supplied to a generic General Electric leading edge showerhead coolant scheme. Pressure ratios were varied from run to run over the ranges of 1.02 to 1.20. The density ratio was near a value of 2. A method to determine both the heat transfer coefficient and film cooling effectiveness from experimental data is outlined. Results show that the heat transfer coefficient is independent of the pressure ratio over these ranges of blowing parameters. Also, there is shown to be a weak reduction of film cooling effectiveness with higher pressure ratios. Results are shown for effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient profiles along the blade. / Master of Science