Ankyrin B (AnkB) is a scaffolding protein, acting as a bridge between ion channels and cytoskeleton networks. AnkB variants are associated with cognitive disorders including autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy. In the brain, AnkB interacts with Cav2.1, the pore-forming subunit of P/Q type voltage gated calcium channels. However, how AnkB regulates Cav2.1 is not fully understood. Using HEK293T cells, we discovered that AnkB increases Cav2.1 expression levels but does not change Cav2.1 surface levels. AnkB p.S646F increases Cav2.1 to an even greater level of expression, again without impacting Cav2.1 surface levels. Looking at a partial loss of AnkB in glutamatergic neurons, overall Cav2.1 levels decreased at P30 but the synaptosomal fraction was not impacted. Our findings indicate that AnkB plays a role in regulating an intracellular pool of Cav2.1 but does not affect the surface or the synaptosomal pools of Cav2.1. This intracellular pool of Cav2.1 may play an important role in neuronal function and homeostasis, suggesting a mechanism for neuronal pathogenicity of AnkB variants. / Graduate / 2020-08-06

No description available.

Les mutations héréditaires causant une perte de fonction du gène CACNA1A, encodant la sous-unité α1 du canal CaV2.1, entraînent chez l’humain le développement d’une ataxie épisodique s’accompagnant parfois d’épilepsie et d’atteintes cognitives. Également, des mutations de novo de CACNA1A ont été rapportées chez près de 1 % des enfants souffrant d’encéphalopathies épileptogènes, ainsi que chez des enfants présentant un trouble du spectre de l’autisme isolé. Ensemble, ces données suggèrent que les altérations de CACNA1A peuvent jouer un rôle central dans la pathogenèse de divers troubles neurodéveloppementaux avec atteintes cognitives et développementales. D’ailleurs, notre évaluation de 16 patients, issus de quatre familles non consanguines, porteurs de différentes mutations induisant une perte de fonction de CACNA1A a révélé l’existence de déficits neurocognitifs modérés à sévères chez la majorité des individus atteints, allant de déficits d’attention avec difficultés d’apprentissage à une déficience intellectuelle avec ou sans trouble du spectre de l’autisme. Alors que les mécanismes pathologiques exacts par lesquels l’haploinsuffisance de CACNA1A induit de tels troubles cognitifs sont encore indéterminés, les mécanismes conduisant à l’épilepsie ont été mieux étudiés. La délétion embryonnaire du canal CaV2.1 dans les interneurones (IN) émanant de l’éminence ganglionnaire médiale (MGE), incluant les IN exprimant la parvalbumine (IN PV) et ceux exprimant la somatostatine (IN SOM), entraîne une épilepsie avec crises tonico-cloniques ainsi que des crises de type absences résultant en une mortalité précoce chez la souris Nkx2.1Cre; Cacna1ac/c. Cependant, la perte du canal dans les IN SOM, chez le modèle SOMCre; Cacna1ac/c, n’induit pas d’épilepsie et la perte ciblée aux IN PV, chez le modèle PVCre; Cacna1ac/c, entraîne une épilepsie caractérisée par des crises d’absence et de rares crises motrices. L’objectif de cette thèse consistait donc, dans un premier temps, de comprendre les mécanismes sous-jacents aux différences épileptiques entre les modèles Nkx2.1Cre; Cacna1ac/c et PVCre; Cacna1ac/c. Les techniques combinées d’imagerie immunohistochimique, d’imagerie 2-photon, d’électrophysiologie, d’analyse d’électroencéphalogramme et de croisement de modèles conditionnels nous ont permis d’identifier les conséquences cellulaires et électrophysiologiques de la délétion de Cacna1a de manière précoce ou tardive dans les IN PV. Elles ont dévoilé, chez le modèle PVCre; Cacna1ac/c, un gain d’inhibition dendritique dans les cellules pyramidales (CP) résultant d’une arborescence axonale accrue des IN SOM. Ce remodelage, dépendant de mTORC1, suffit à prévenir l’apparition de crises motrices et l’inhibition de cette croissance axonale à l’aide de rapamycine renverse l’effet protecteur observé chez la souris PVCre; Cacna1ac/c. Enfin, nous démontrons que l’activation chémogénétique des IN SOM corticaux prévient l’apparition de crises motrices dans un modèle d’épilepsie induite à l’acide kaïnique. Puisque les IN PV en panier du cortex sont essentiels à plusieurs processus cognitifs, telles la flexibilité cognitive et l’attention, qu’ils sont affectés par la perte de fonction homozygote de CaV2.1 et afin de reproduire une condition semblable à celle de nos patients, nous avons exploré dans un deuxième temps l’implication pathologique de ces neurones dans les troubles cognitifs associés à l’haploinsuffisance de Cacna1a. À l’aide du modèle murin portant une délétion hétérozygote de Cacna1a ciblée aux populations neuronales exprimant la PV (PVCre; Cacna1ac/+), nous démontrons par électrophysiologie que la perte du canal CaV2.1 dans ces neurones suffit à réduire l’inhibition corticale. Les tests comportementaux incluant l’Openfield, l’Elevated Plus Maze, le Morris Water Maze, une tâche testant la rigidité cognitive ainsi qu’une tâche évaluant l’attention, ont démontré que les mutants PVCre; Cacna1ac/+ présentent de l’impulsivité, de la rigidité cognitive ainsi qu’un déficit d’attention sélective. Bien que l’ablation homozygote du canal réduise la relâche synaptique des CP chez le mutant homozygote Emx1Cre; Cacna1ac/c, aucun déficit de relâche synaptique, comportemental ou cognitif n’a été observé chez les souris Emx1Cre; Cacna1ac/+ suggérant qu’au niveau cortical, la délétion hétérozygote de Cacna1a affecte sélectivement les IN PV. De plus, à l’aide de délétions ciblées au cortex orbito-frontal (OFC) et au cortex préfrontal médial (mPFC), nous démontrons que l’haploinsuffisance de Cacna1a dans ces régions entraîne de la rigidité cognitive et des troubles de l’attention, respectivement. Enfin, nous révélons que ces deux atteintes peuvent être corrigées via une activation chémogénétique locale des IN PV. Dans son ensemble, ce travail contribue au développement des connaissances portant sur les délétions de Cacna1a. Il présente également de nouvelles avenues pour le traitement de crises épileptiques motrices et pour la prise en charge des atteintes cognitives chez les patients souffrant d’haploinsuffisance de CACNA1A. / Loss-of-function mutations in the CACNA1A gene, encoding the α1 subunit of voltage-gated CaV2.1 channels, result in epilepsy and neurocognitive impairments, including attention deficits, intellectual deficiency and autism. Also, de novo mutations in CACNA1A have been reported in nearly 1% of children with epileptogenic encephalopathies, as well as in children with isolated autism spectrum problems. Taken together, these data suggest that alterations in CACNA1A may play a central role in the pathogenesis of various neurodevelopmental disorders with cognitive and developmental impairment. Moreover, our evaluation of 16 patients, from four non-consanguineous families, carriers of different mutations inducing a loss of function of CACNA1A have shown the existence of moderate to severe neurocognitive deficits in the majority of affected individuals, ranging from deficits from attention with learning difficulties to intellectual disabilities with or without an autism spectrum problem. While the exact pathological mechanisms by which CACNA1A haploinsufficiency induces such cognitive impairment are still unknown, the mechanisms leading to epilepsy have been better studied. Embryonic deletion of CaV2.1 in interneurons (IN) emanating from the medial ganglionic eminence (MGE), including INs expressing parvalbumin (PV IN) and those expressing somatostatin (SOM IN), causes epilepsy with tonic-clonic seizures and absence seizures resulting in early mortality in the Nkx2.1Cre; Cacna1ac/c mice model. However, loss of the channel in SOM IN (SOMCre; Cacna1ac/c) does not induce epilepsy whereas targeted loss in PV IN (PVCre; Cacna1ac/c) causes epilepsy with absence and rare motor seizures. The objective of this thesis was therefore, first of all, to understand the mechanisms underlying the epileptic differences between the Nkx2.1Cre ;Cacna1ac/c and the PVCre; Cacna1ac/c mice. The combined techniques of immunohistochemistry, 2-photon imaging, electrophysiology, electroencephalogram analysis and the crossing of different conditional models identified the cellular and electrophysiological consequences of the deletion of Cacna1a in the IN PV. Compared to Nkx2.1Cre; Cacna1ac/c mice, PVCre; Cacna1ac/c mice have a net increase in cortical inhibition, with a gain of dendritic inhibition through sprouting of SOM IN axons, largely preventing motor seizures. This beneficial compensatory remodeling of cortical GABAergic innervation is mTORC1-dependent and its inhibition with rapamycin leads to a striking increase in motor seizures. Furthermore, we show that a direct chemogenic activation of cortical SOM-INs prevents motor seizures in a model of kainate-induced seizures. Cortical PV IN basket cells are essential for several cognitive processes, such as cognitive flexibility and attention and they are affected by CaV2.1 knock-out. CACNA1A haploinsufficiency also causes cause epilepsy, ataxia, and a range of neurocognitive deficits, including inattention, impulsivity, intellectual deficiency and autism. Therefore, this thesis had for second objective to clarify the consequences of Cacna1a haploinsufficiency in PV IN. Using the mice model carrying a heterozygous deletion of Cacna1a targeted at neuronal populations expressing PV (PVCre; Cacna1ac/+), we demonstrated by electrophysiology that the loss of the CaV2.1 in this neuronal population is sufficient to reduce cortical inhibition. Behavioral tests including the OpenField, the Elevated Plus Maze, the Morris Water Maze, a cognitive rigidity task as well as an attention set-shifting task have shown that PVCre; Cacna1ac/+ exhibit impulsivity, cognitive rigidity, and selective attention deficit. Although Cacna1a homozygous ablation reduced synaptic release of PC in the Emx1Cre; Cacna1ac/c mice mutant, no synaptic, behavioural or cognitive relaxation deficits were observed in the Emx1Cre; Cacna1ac/+ mice suggesting that, at the cortical level, the heterozygous deletion of Cacna1a selectively affects PV IN. These findings have enabled us to determine, using targeted deletions within the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), that the haploinsufficiency of Cacna1a in PV IN results in reversal learning deficits and impairs selective attention, respectively. These deficits can be rescued by the selective chemogenetic activation of cortical PV IN respectively in the OFC or mPFC of PVCre; Cacna1ac/+ mutants As a whole, this work contributes to the development of knowledge on Cacna1a deletions. It also presents new avenues for the treatment of motor epileptic seizures and for the management of cognitive impairment in patients with CACNA1A haploinsufficiency.

Synaptic plasticity describes efficacy changes in synaptic transmission and ranges in duration from tens to hundreds of milliseconds (short-term), to hours and days (long-term). Short-term plasticity plays crucial roles in synaptic computation, information processing, learning, working and short-term memory as well as its dysfunction in psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. The main aim of my PhD thesis was to determine the molecular mechanisms of different forms of presynaptic plasticity. Short-term facilitation increases neurotransmitter release in response to a high-frequency pair (paired-pulse facilitation; PPF) or train (train facilitation; TF) of presynaptic stimuli. Synaptotagmin 7 (Syt7) has been shown to act as residual calcium (Ca$_{res}$) sensor for PPF and TF at various synapses. Syt7 also seems to be involved in recovery from depression, whereas its role in neurotransmission remains controversial. My aim was to express Syt7 in a synapse where it is not normally found and determine how it affects short-term synaptic plasticity. Immunohistochemistry indicated that Syt7 is not localized to cerebellar climbing fibers (CFs). Wild-type (WT) and Syt7 knockout (KO) recordings at CF to Purkinje cell (CF-PC) synapses established that at near-physiological external calcium (Ca$_{ext}$) levels both genotypes displayed similar recovery from paired-pulse depression. In low Ca$_{ext}$,WT CF-PC synapses showed robust PPF, which turned out to be independent of Syt7. All my experiments strongly suggested that WT CFs do not express native Syt7, but display low Ca$_{ext}$ CF-PC PPF and TF. Thus, channelrhodopsin-2 and Syt7 were bicistronically expressed via AAV9 virus in CFs. This ectopic Syt7 expression in CFs led to big increases in low-Ca$_{ext}$ CF-PC facilitation, more than doubling PPF and more than tripling TF. While overexpression of Syt7 might turn out to have an effect on the initial release probability (pr), the observed CF-PC facilitation increase still critically depended on presynaptic Syt7 expression. And when comparing only cells in a defined EPSC1 amplitude range, the Syt7-induced increase in low-Ca$_{ext}$ PPF could not be accounted for by changes in initial pr, suggesting a general role for Syt7 as calcium sensor for facilitation. Another form of short-term plasticity, post-tetanic potentiation (PTP), is believed to be mediated presynaptically by calcium-dependent protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms that phosphorylate Munc18-1 proteins. It is unknown how generally applicable this mechanism is throughout the brain and if other proteins might be able to modulate PTP. Combining genetic (PKCαβy triple knockout [TKO] and Munc18-1SA knock-in [Munc18 KI] mice, in which Munc18- 1 cannot get phosphorylated) with pharmacological tools (PKC inhibitor GF109203), helped us show that PTP at the cerebellar parallel fiber to Purkinje cell (PF-PC) synapse seems to depend on PKCs but seems mostly independent of Munc18-1 phosphorylation. In addition, compared to WT animals, genetic elimination of presynaptic active zone protein Liprin-α3 led to similar PF-PC PTP and paired-pulse ratios (PPRs). At the hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapse previous pharmacological studies suggested that PKC mediates PTP. A genetic approach helped to show that calcium dependent PKCs do not seem to be required for CA3-CA1 PTP. Pharmacologically inhibiting protein kinase A as well as genetically eliminating Syt7 also had no effect on CA3-CA1 PTP. In addition, Ca IM-AA mutant mice, in which Ca$_{v}$2.1 channels have a mutated IQ-like motif (IM) so that it cannot get bound by calcium sensor proteins any more, not only displayed regular PTP, but also normal PPF and TF at CA3-CA1 synapses. In conclusion, my PhD thesis helped further characterize different forms of presynaptic plasticity, underlined that short-term synaptic plasticity can be achieved through diverse mechanisms across the Mammalian brain and supported a potentially general role for synaptotagmin 7 acting as residual calcium sensor for facilitation.