Perturbations to extravillous trophoblast (EVT) cell migration and invasion are associated with the development of placenta-mediated diseases. Dietary polyphenols have been shown to influence cell migration and invasion in models of tumorigenesis and non-cancerous, healthy cells; however, never shown in EVT cells. We hypothesize that polyphenols present in V. angustifolium leaves will promote trophoblast migration and invasion through ERK and AKT activation. Using the HTR-8/SVneo cell line as a model for EVT cells, the leaf extract increased trophoblast migration and invasion, in an ERK- and AKT-independent manner, and had no effect on cell proliferation or viability. One major polyphenol of the leaf extract was identified and may be an active compound. We have demonstrated for the first time that V. angustifolium leaf extract increases EVT migration and invasion in vitro, thus further investigations examining potential therapeutic applications of this extract in the context of placenta-mediated diseases are warranted.

Besides biochemical and molecular regulation, the migration and invasion of cells is controlled by the environmental mechanics and cellular mechanics. Hence, the mechanical phenotype of cells, such as fibroblasts, seems to be crucial for the migratory capacity in confined 3D extracellular matrices. Recently, we have shown that the migratory and invasive capacity of mouse embryonic fibroblasts depends on the expression of the Rho-GTPase Rac1, similarly it has been demonstrated that the Rho-GTPase Cdc42 affects cell motility. The p21-activated kinase (PAK) is an effector down-stream target of both Rho-GTPases Rac1 and Cdc42, and it can activate via the LIM kinase-1 its down-stream target cofilin and subsequently support the cell migration and invasion through the polymerization of actin filaments. Since Rac1 deficient cells become mechanically softer than controls, we investigated the effect of group I PAKs and PAK1 inhibition on cell mechanics in the presence and absence of Rac1. Therefore, we determined whether mouse embryonic fibroblasts, in which Rac1 was knockedout, and control cells, displayed cell mechanical alterations after treatment with group I PAKs or PAK1 inhibitors using a magnetic tweezer (adhesive cell state) and an optical cell stretcher (non-adhesive cell state). In fact, we found that group I PAKs and Pak1 inhibition decreased the stiffness and the Young’s modulus of fibroblasts in the presence of Rac1 independent of their adhesive state. However, in the absence of Rac1 the effect was abolished in the adhesive cell state for both inhibitors and in their nonadhesive state, the effect was abolished for the FRAX597 inhibitor, but not for the IPA3 inhibitor. The migration and invasion were additionally reduced by both PAK inhibitors in the presence of Rac1. In the absence of Rac1, only FRAX597 inhibitor reduced their invasiveness, whereas IPA3 had no effect. These findings indicate that group I PAKs and PAK1 inhibition is solely possible in the presence of Rac1 highlighting Rac1/PAK I (PAK1, 2, and 3) as major players in cell mechanics.

Micro (mi)RNAs have recently been found to play an important role in cancer biology. In order to further understand how miRNAs affect prostate tumour progression, we evaluated miRNA expression in two invasive prostate tumour lines, PC3 and DU145. We then focused our evaluation on a novel miRNA, miR-105, whose levels were significantly decreased in both tumour cell lines as compared to normal prostate epithelial cells. As miR-105 levels were reduced in prostate tumour cell lines, we restored its expression following transfection of cells with mimic constructs to over-express miR-105 in both cell lines, in order to determine its effect on various tumourigenic properties. Over-expression caused decreased tumour cell proliferation, anchorage-independent growth and invasion in vitro and inhibited tumour growth in vivo. We further identified CDK6 as a putative target of miR-105, which likely contributed to its inhibition of tumour cell growth. Our results suggest that miR-105 inhibits tumour cell proliferation and may be an interesting target to regulate tumour growth or potentially used as a biomarker to differentiate between less and more aggressive tumours in patients.

Micro (mi)RNAs have recently been found to play an important role in cancer biology. In order to further understand how miRNAs affect prostate tumour progression, we evaluated miRNA expression in two invasive prostate tumour lines, PC3 and DU145. We then focused our evaluation on a novel miRNA, miR-105, whose levels were significantly decreased in both tumour cell lines as compared to normal prostate epithelial cells. As miR-105 levels were reduced in prostate tumour cell lines, we restored its expression following transfection of cells with mimic constructs to over-express miR-105 in both cell lines, in order to determine its effect on various tumourigenic properties. Over-expression caused decreased tumour cell proliferation, anchorage-independent growth and invasion in vitro and inhibited tumour growth in vivo. We further identified CDK6 as a putative target of miR-105, which likely contributed to its inhibition of tumour cell growth. Our results suggest that miR-105 inhibits tumour cell proliferation and may be an interesting target to regulate tumour growth or potentially used as a biomarker to differentiate between less and more aggressive tumours in patients.

Micro (mi)RNAs have recently been found to play an important role in cancer biology. In order to further understand how miRNAs affect prostate tumour progression, we evaluated miRNA expression in two invasive prostate tumour lines, PC3 and DU145. We then focused our evaluation on a novel miRNA, miR-105, whose levels were significantly decreased in both tumour cell lines as compared to normal prostate epithelial cells. As miR-105 levels were reduced in prostate tumour cell lines, we restored its expression following transfection of cells with mimic constructs to over-express miR-105 in both cell lines, in order to determine its effect on various tumourigenic properties. Over-expression caused decreased tumour cell proliferation, anchorage-independent growth and invasion in vitro and inhibited tumour growth in vivo. We further identified CDK6 as a putative target of miR-105, which likely contributed to its inhibition of tumour cell growth. Our results suggest that miR-105 inhibits tumour cell proliferation and may be an interesting target to regulate tumour growth or potentially used as a biomarker to differentiate between less and more aggressive tumours in patients.

Le cancer du sein est le cancer le plus fréquemment diagnostiqué et le plus mortelle chez la femme, où sa progression vers le stade métastatique constitue une menace pour la vie des patientes. La présence de métastases représente le défi clinique central de l'oncologie des tumeurs solides, de sorte que les mécanismes et les voies sous-jacents au processus métastatique doivent être mieux définis. L'expression aberrante du récepteur tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL a été liée cliniquement à la formation de métastases et à l'acquisition d'une résistance aux médicaments contre le cancer. AXL est un membre de la sous-famille des récepteurs tyrosine kinase TAM et intervient dans plusieurs processus biologiques tels que l'atténuation de la réponse immunitaire, l'élimination des cellules apoptotiques et la promotion de la survie cellulaire. L'expression d'AXL dans les tumeurs primaires humaines corrèle avec la faible survie des patients. Malgré sa régulation positive préférentielle dans les lignées cellulaires triple négatives / basales B, des études ont montré que l’expression d’AXL est indépendante du sous-type de la tumeur mammaire des patients. AXL peut être activé par son ligand GAS6 ou par d'autres RTK. Lors de son activation, AXL induit une signalisation en aval entraînant l'activation d'intermédiaires de signalisation canoniques, notamment MAPK, AKT et PI 3-kinases. Cependant, les voies de signalisation spécifiques engagées par AXL pour conférer un tel pouvoir pro-invasion ne sont pas connues. Ainsi, le but de cette thèse est d'identifier des substrats spécifiques d’AXL et des voies en aval qui jouent un rôle important dans le maintien d'un état « EMT » et d'un renforcement du phénotype mésenchymal dans les cellules cancéreuses. À la recherche de régulateurs en amont du complexe ELMO/DOCK1 impliqués dans l’activation de RAC, nous présentons au chapitre 2 les protéines d’échafaudage ELMO en tant que substrats directs et partenaires de liaison d’AXL. Grâce à des approches de protéomique et de mutagenèse, nous révélons que la kinase AXL phosphoryle ELMO1/2 sur un résidu tyrosine carboxy-terminal conservé. Dans les cellules cancéreuses du sein, l'activation d'AXL dépendante de GAS6 a conduit à la phosphorylation endogène d'ELMO2 sur Tyr-713, menant ainsi à la formation du complexe AXL/ELMO. En outre, l'activation de RAC induite par GAS6 dans les cellules cancéreuses du sein dépendait de l'expression d'ELMO2. Semblable au blocage d’AXL, l'inhibition d’ELMO2 ou l'inhibition pharmacologique de DOCK1 supprime l'invasion des cellules du cancer du sein, qui, selon nous, dépendait de l'état de phosphorylation d'ELMO. Notre travail au chapitre 2 définit un nouveau mécanisme par lequel AXL favorise la prolifération et l'invasion cellulaire et identifie l'inhibition de la voie ELMO/DOCK comme une cible thérapeutique potentielle pour arrêter les métastases induites par AXL. Bien qu'il soit encore difficile de savoir comment les signaux d’AXL induisent son phénotype pro-invasif, notre travail au Chapitre 3 vise à identifier des substrats et des voies de signalisation spécifiques qui sont significativement modulés lors de l'activation d'AXL. Pour y remédier, nous avons défini le phosphoprotéome de la régulation d’AXL dans des cellules cancéreuses du sein triple-négatives en utilisant une approche quantitative. Nous révélons qu’AXL module de manière robuste, parmi de nombreux processus et voies biologiques importants, la phosphorylation d'un réseau de protéines d'adhésion focale (FA) aboutissant à un désassemblage plus rapide des FA. De manière intéressante, nous avons trouvé que la modulation de la voie FA était unique à AXL par rapport à d'autres RTK tels que l'EGFR. En particulier, nous avons trouvé qu’AXL phosphoryle la protéine NEDD9, modulant la formation du complexe NEDD9/CRKII/DOCK3, qui orchestre la phosphorylation de la pseudo-kinase PEAK1 médiée par AXL. Nos données révèlent un mécanisme distinct par lequel les complexes PEAK1 avec la kinase CSK médient la phosphorylation de PXN et le renouvellement des FA induit par AXL. En utilisant l'injection orthotopique de cellules cancéreuses du sein dans le tissu adipeux mammaire des souris et dans la veine de la queue, nous révélons que l'inactivation de PEAK1 par CRISPR diminue la croissance tumorale et les métastases in vivo. De plus, notre travail au chapitre 3 révèle une contribution unique et inattendue de la signalisation d’AXL à la dynamique des FA, révélant un mécanisme longtemps recherché sous-tendant l'activité invasive d'AXL. Cette compréhension approfondie des réseaux de signalisation régulés par AXL identifie PEAK1 comme une nouvelle cible thérapeutique dans les tumeurs AXL positives. En conclusion, cette thèse a identifié, pour la première fois, le phosphoprotéome d’AXL et des voies de signalisation spécifique à AXL, pouvant justifier le rôle du récepteur en tant que promoteur de métastases et de résistance aux médicaments. Notre travail révèle de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques qui pourraient avoir un grand potentiel si elles sont utilisées en thérapie combinatoire avec l’inhibition d’AXL pour prévenir la formation de métastases des tumeurs AXL positives. / Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women where its progression to the metastatic stage poses a threat to the life of patients. The metastatic disease represents the central clinical challenge of solid tumor oncology such that mechanisms and pathways underlying the metastatic process must be better defined. The aberrant expression of the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) AXL has been linked clinically to metastasis and acquisition of drug resistance. AXL is a member of the TAM subfamily and functions in several biological processes such as dampening the immune response, clearing apoptotic cells and promoting cell survival. Despite its preferential upregulation in triple negative/basal B cell lines, studies have shown AXL expression in the clinic to be subtype independent. AXL can be activated by its ligand GAS6 or by a crosstalk with other RTKs. Upon its activation, AXL induces downstream signaling resulting in the activation of canonical signaling intermediates including MAPKs, AKT and PI 3-kinases. However, the specific signaling pathways engaged by AXL to confer such enhanced pro-invasion power are not known and the goal of this thesis is to identify AXL-specific substrates and downstream pathways that are behind AXL’s significant role in maintaining an EMT state and reinforced mesenchymal phenotype in cancer cells. In search of upstream regulators of ELMO/DOCK1 complex involved in RAC activation, we reported ELMO scaffolds as direct substrates and binding partners of AXL. Through proteomics and mutagenesis approaches, we revealed phosphorylation of ELMO1/2 by AXL kinase on a conserved carboxyl-terminal tyrosine residue. In breast cancer cells, GAS6-dependent activation of AXL led to endogenous ELMO2 phosphorylation on Tyr-713 and AXL/ELMO complex formation. In addition, GAS6-induced RAC activation in breast cancer cells was dependent on ELMO2 expression and phosphorylation. Our work in chapter 2 defines a new mechanism by which AXL promotes cell proliferation and invasion and identifies inhibition of ELMO/DOCK pathway as a potential therapeutic target to stop AXL-induced metastases. While it still remains elusive how AXL signals to induce its pro-invasive phenotype, our work strove to identify specific substrates and signaling pathways that are significantly modulated upon AXL activation using a quantitative phosphoproteomics approach. By generating GAS6-induced AXL phosphoproteome, we found that AXL robustly modulates, among many different significant biological processes and pathways, the phosphorylation of a network of focal adhesion (FA) proteins culminating in faster FA disassembly. Interestingly, we found AXL modulation of FA pathway to be unique to AXL in comparison with other RTKs such as EGFR. NEDD9 FA protein was identified to be a direct substrate of AXL, where its phosphorylation modulates its complex formation with CRKII/DOCK3, and this subsequently orchestrates the AXL-mediated phosphorylation of the pseudo-kinase PEAK1. Our data revealed a distinct mechanism by which PEAK1 complexes with CSK kinase, mediating PXN phosphorylation and AXL-induced FA turnover. Using in vivo assays such as tail-vein metastasis assay and tumor growth assay, we revealed that gene inactivation of PEAK1 by CRISPR CAS9 decreased tumor growth and metastasis. Furthermore, our work in chapter 3 uncovers an unexpected and unique robust contribution of AXL signaling to FA dynamics revealing a long sought-after mechanism underlying AXL pro-invasive activity. This in-depth understanding of AXL regulated signaling networks identifies PEAK1 as a new therapeutic target in AXL positive tumors. In conclusion, this thesis identified, for the first time, AXL phosphoproteome and AXL specific downstream signaling pathways that may justify AXL’s role as a promoter of metastasis and drug resistance. Our work reveals novel therapeutic drug targets that may hold a great potential if used in combinational therapeutics with AXL inhibition to prevent metastasis of AXL positive tumors.