Genetic Variation influencing reproduction and growth of White Rock chickens was studied. The populations used were lines high (HH) and low (LL) selected for 56-day body weight, reciprocal F₁ crosses (HL and LH), F₂ crosses of the F₁ and dwarf populations (HD and LD) originating from lines HH and LL. Inheritance of egg production and egg composition was examined (Experiment 1). Although reciprocal effects were generally unimportant, nonadditive genetic variation was evident for reproductive traits and egg component measures of shell and yolk. Comparisons in Experiment 2 involved dwarf and normal chickens from lines HH and LL. Yolk weight increased while the ratio of albumen to yolk decreased with age. Line and genotype differences were evident for egg shell and yolk traits while line by genotype interactions showed that genetic background influenced expression of dw. Embryo growth of dwarfs was similar to that of nondwarfs at all ages (Experiment 3). Reduced egg size of dwarf pullets did not reduce embryonic weights. Embryo length and weight and yolk sac weight were greater for line HH than LL. In Experiment 4, allometric growth and cellular content of brains were measured in normal and dwarf chickens from lines HH and LL and reciprocal F₁ crosses from hatch to maturity. Allometric slopes were similar for lines HH and LL with significant heterosis. Within an age, DNA, RNA and protein content (mg/g) were similar for all populations. Brain weight differences were due to equal filling of a greater number cells for line HH than LL. Final brain size was influenced more by embryonic hyperplasia than postembryonic hypertrophy. The final experiment measured growth and cellular content of pectoralis and gastrocnemius muscles in populations HH, LL and F₁ from hatch to day 273. HH chicks had a smaller DNA unit size and a greater unit number than LL chicks at hatch. During rapid muscle growth, cell size was larger for HH than LL chickens. Pectoralis muscle grew at a faster rate than gastrocnemius muscle. Also cellular filling as measured by the DNA unit size was higher for pectoralis than gastrocnemius muscle through day 4. By day 10 the pattern reversed with values greater for gastrocnemius than pectoralis muscle. / Ph. D.

A procedure was developed to examine factors contributing to skin strength of meat-type chickens. Skin breaking strength was initially measured in lines of chickens divergently selected for high (H) and low (L) juvenile body weight, their reciprocal crosses (HL and LH), and an F₂ generation derived from HL and LH matings. Skin of chicks from the LL line was weakest, that from the HH and LH matings strongest, and that from HL and F₂ matings was intermediate. Percentage heterosis for breaking strength was significantly positive while percentage recombination was not significant. Skin breaking strength and protein, fat, moisture, and total collagen concentrations of skin from the breast, thigh, and back of male and female commercial broilers were then examined in response to diets containing relatively wide or narrow ratios of calories to protein (C:P). Comparisons were made at 28, 42, and 56 days of age. Chickens fed diets containing wider C:P ratios had weaker skin than those fed diets with narrower C:P ratios, with the differences being greater at older than at younger ages. Males had stronger skin than females. Among body sites, breast skin was stronger than thigh skin with that from the back being intermediate in strength. Skin breaking strength did not appear to be consistently associated with either the protein, fat, or collagen concentrations in the skin. Skin from broiler chicks fed diets with differing C:P ratios was also examined histologically. Males had stronger and thinner skin than females, with the differences in thickness due primarily to differences in the thickness of the hypodermis. Regardless of sex, feeding diets containing wider C:P ratios resulted in weaker and thicker skin. The thicker skin was associated with an increase in the thickness of the hypodermis and a decrease in the thickness of the dermis and epidermis. With the exception of differences between back and thigh skin, increases in breaking strength occurring between skin from different sites were associated with a reduction in total skin thickness and in the thickness of the hypodermis. It was concluded that increased hypodermis thickness and/or decreased thickness of the dermis and epidermis reduced skin strength. Two experiments were conducted in which skin strength was examined in relation to heat stress and supplemental ascorbic acid. In the first experiment, chicks fed diets containing 0 or 100 mg of ascorbic acid per kg of diet were subjected to either a constant ambient temperature of 23C, a constant ambient temperature of 32C, or a treatment consisting of 32C from 1600 to 1200 hr and 400 from 1200 to 1600 hr (32/400). Both heat stress and supplemental ascorbic acid tended to increase collagen concentrations in the skin, but differences in breaking strength were inconsistent in response to these treatments. Supplemental ascorbic acid, however, partially alleviated reductions in body weight due to heat stress but did not decrease body temperatures of heat-stressed chicks. In the final experiment, diets containing either 0, 200, or 400 mg/kg of supplemental ascorbic acid were fed to chicks maintained at ambient temperatures of 23 and 34C. Contrary to previous observations, ascorbic acid failed to ameliorate the depressive effect of heat stress on body weight. Supplemental ascorbic acid tended to reduce adrenal, bursa of Fabricius, and spleen weights but had no effect on heterophil and lymphocyte numbers or ratios. Adrenal ascorbic acid concentrations were not significantly affected by supplemental ascorbic acid and plasma ascorbic acid levels were inconsistent among treatment groups. Neither supplemental ascorbic acid nor heat stress significantly influenced skin strength. It was concluded that supplemental ascorbic acid was not beneficial in improving skin strength in commercial broiler chicks. / Ph. D.

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar o comportamento térmico de diferentes linhagens de frangos de corte submetidas a estresse e conforto durante o ciclo de produção. Para isso, realizou-se um experimento em câmara climática, durante as seis semanas do ciclo de criação, em que os animais foram submetidos a duas condições ambientais: conforto e estresse. Foram adotados quatro tratamentos, sendo assim definidos: tratamento C60 (condição de conforto), com 60 minutos de exposição; tratamento E30, tratamento E60 e tratamento E90 (condição de estresse), com 30, 60 e 90 minutos de exposição, respectivamente. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o de quadrados latinos 4 x 4, sendo caracterizados por quatro lotes de aves, expostas aos quatro tratamentos, nos quatro primeiros dias de cada semana. As aves, das linhagens Avian e Cobb, foram divididas em lotes de 48 aves por semana, totalizando 96 animais, e totalizando 586 aves, de ambos os sexos, durante todo o período experimental. As variáveis climáticas adotadas para as condições de conforto e estresse diferiram ao longo das semanas, uma vez que as necessidades térmicas de frangos de corte diferem com o decorrer do ciclo produtivo. No primeiro capítulo, as variáveis fisiológicas, frequência respiratória e temperatura cloacal foram estudadas, estipulando-se, dessa maneira, faixas para as condições de conforto e estresse. Com base nessas variáveis, estudou-se a tolerância das linhagens ao estresse térmico, e observou-se que a linhagem Cobb é mais tolerante ao estresse térmico. No segundo capítulo, estudou-se a influência de tempo de exposição sobre a temperatura superficial das seguintes regiões corporais: asa, cabeça, pata, dorso e crista. O tempo de exposição não influenciou, em nenhuma das semanas, a temperatura superficial das aves, havendo diferenças significativas apenas entre a condição de conforto e estresse. Baseando-se nessas informações, e nessas regiões corporais, determinaram-se modelos de regressão linear múltipla para cada uma das semanas do ciclo de criação, para ambas as linhagens, sendo denominadas por TSM Nascimento. A escolha dos modelos foi realizada pelo método da máxima verossimilhança, pelo critério de Akaike (AIC) e pelo teste qui-quadrado para verificar o número de regiões corporais incluídas em cada um dos distintos modelos. No terceiro capítulo, efetuou-se o balanço de calor sensível e latente das aves, baseado nos modelos de temperatura superficial TSM Nascimento, na temperatura do núcleo corporal (adotada na pesquisa como a temperatura cloacal) e nas variáveis ambientais coletadas durante a pesquisa, para ambas as linhagens. Observou-se que, em condição de conforto, a partir da terceira semana, as trocas sensíveis correspondem a até 80% do total das trocas de calor. Em estresse térmico, as trocas latentes correspondem a até 84% do total. Verificou-se que as aves são mais susceptíveis ao estresse térmico na terceira semana do ciclo produtivo. / The aim of this research was to evaluate thermal behaviour of different broiler chicken strains submitted to stress and comfort through lifecycle. Thereunto, an experiment was accomplished in climatic chamber, during the six weeks of life of the birds, with the animals submitted to two environmental conditions: comfort and stress. Four treatments were adopted, defined as: treatment C60 (comfort condition), with 60 minutes of exposure; treatment E30, treatment E60 and treatment E90 (stress condition), with 30, 60 and 90 minutes of exposure, respectively. Experimental design adopted was a 4 x 4 latin square, characterized by four lots of birds, exposed to the four treatments, in the first four days of each week. Broiler, from Avian and Cobb strains, were divided in lots of 48 birds per week, totalizing 96 animals, and totalizing 586 animals, both sexes, during all experimental period. Climatic variables adopted to comfort and stress conditions differd through the weeks, once that thermal requirements of broiler chickens differ throughout growing cycle. In the first chapter, physiological variables respiration rate and cloacal temperature were studied, stipulating in this way, bands to comfort and stress conditions. Based on these variables, the tolerance of strains to thermal stress was studied, and was observed that Cobb strain is more tolerant to heat stress. In the second chapter, the influence of exposure time on superficial temperature was studied in the following body regions: wing, head, feet, back and comb. Exposure time did not influence, in none of weeks, superficial temperature of birds, with significative differences only among comfort and stress conditions. Based on these boards, and on these body regions, multiple linear regression models were determined to each week of lifecycle, to both strains, being named as TSM Nascimento. The selection of the models was done by maximum likelihood method, by Akaikes criteria (AIC) and by qui-square test to verify the number of body regions included in each one of the models. In the third chapter, was accomplished sensible and latent heat balance of the birds, based on superficial temperature models TSM Nascimento, core body temperature (adopted in the research as cloacal temperature) and on environmental variables collected during the research, to both strains. It was observed that in comfort condition, from third week of lifecycle and on, sensible exchanges corresponded for up to 80% of the total exchanges. In thermal stress, latent exchanges corresponded for up to 84% of the total. It was verified that broiler chickens are more susceptible to thermal stress in the third week of lifecycle.

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar o comportamento térmico de diferentes linhagens de frangos de corte submetidas a estresse e conforto durante o ciclo de produção. Para isso, realizou-se um experimento em câmara climática, durante as seis semanas do ciclo de criação, em que os animais foram submetidos a duas condições ambientais: conforto e estresse. Foram adotados quatro tratamentos, sendo assim definidos: tratamento C60 (condição de conforto), com 60 minutos de exposição; tratamento E30, tratamento E60 e tratamento E90 (condição de estresse), com 30, 60 e 90 minutos de exposição, respectivamente. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o de quadrados latinos 4 x 4, sendo caracterizados por quatro lotes de aves, expostas aos quatro tratamentos, nos quatro primeiros dias de cada semana. As aves, das linhagens Avian e Cobb, foram divididas em lotes de 48 aves por semana, totalizando 96 animais, e totalizando 586 aves, de ambos os sexos, durante todo o período experimental. As variáveis climáticas adotadas para as condições de conforto e estresse diferiram ao longo das semanas, uma vez que as necessidades térmicas de frangos de corte diferem com o decorrer do ciclo produtivo. No primeiro capítulo, as variáveis fisiológicas, frequência respiratória e temperatura cloacal foram estudadas, estipulando-se, dessa maneira, faixas para as condições de conforto e estresse. Com base nessas variáveis, estudou-se a tolerância das linhagens ao estresse térmico, e observou-se que a linhagem Cobb é mais tolerante ao estresse térmico. No segundo capítulo, estudou-se a influência de tempo de exposição sobre a temperatura superficial das seguintes regiões corporais: asa, cabeça, pata, dorso e crista. O tempo de exposição não influenciou, em nenhuma das semanas, a temperatura superficial das aves, havendo diferenças significativas apenas entre a condição de conforto e estresse. Baseando-se nessas informações, e nessas regiões corporais, determinaram-se modelos de regressão linear múltipla para cada uma das semanas do ciclo de criação, para ambas as linhagens, sendo denominadas por TSM Nascimento. A escolha dos modelos foi realizada pelo método da máxima verossimilhança, pelo critério de Akaike (AIC) e pelo teste qui-quadrado para verificar o número de regiões corporais incluídas em cada um dos distintos modelos. No terceiro capítulo, efetuou-se o balanço de calor sensível e latente das aves, baseado nos modelos de temperatura superficial TSM Nascimento, na temperatura do núcleo corporal (adotada na pesquisa como a temperatura cloacal) e nas variáveis ambientais coletadas durante a pesquisa, para ambas as linhagens. Observou-se que, em condição de conforto, a partir da terceira semana, as trocas sensíveis correspondem a até 80% do total das trocas de calor. Em estresse térmico, as trocas latentes correspondem a até 84% do total. Verificou-se que as aves são mais susceptíveis ao estresse térmico na terceira semana do ciclo produtivo. / The aim of this research was to evaluate thermal behaviour of different broiler chicken strains submitted to stress and comfort through lifecycle. Thereunto, an experiment was accomplished in climatic chamber, during the six weeks of life of the birds, with the animals submitted to two environmental conditions: comfort and stress. Four treatments were adopted, defined as: treatment C60 (comfort condition), with 60 minutes of exposure; treatment E30, treatment E60 and treatment E90 (stress condition), with 30, 60 and 90 minutes of exposure, respectively. Experimental design adopted was a 4 x 4 latin square, characterized by four lots of birds, exposed to the four treatments, in the first four days of each week. Broiler, from Avian and Cobb strains, were divided in lots of 48 birds per week, totalizing 96 animals, and totalizing 586 animals, both sexes, during all experimental period. Climatic variables adopted to comfort and stress conditions differd through the weeks, once that thermal requirements of broiler chickens differ throughout growing cycle. In the first chapter, physiological variables respiration rate and cloacal temperature were studied, stipulating in this way, bands to comfort and stress conditions. Based on these variables, the tolerance of strains to thermal stress was studied, and was observed that Cobb strain is more tolerant to heat stress. In the second chapter, the influence of exposure time on superficial temperature was studied in the following body regions: wing, head, feet, back and comb. Exposure time did not influence, in none of weeks, superficial temperature of birds, with significative differences only among comfort and stress conditions. Based on these boards, and on these body regions, multiple linear regression models were determined to each week of lifecycle, to both strains, being named as TSM Nascimento. The selection of the models was done by maximum likelihood method, by Akaikes criteria (AIC) and by qui-square test to verify the number of body regions included in each one of the models. In the third chapter, was accomplished sensible and latent heat balance of the birds, based on superficial temperature models TSM Nascimento, core body temperature (adopted in the research as cloacal temperature) and on environmental variables collected during the research, to both strains. It was observed that in comfort condition, from third week of lifecycle and on, sensible exchanges corresponded for up to 80% of the total exchanges. In thermal stress, latent exchanges corresponded for up to 84% of the total. It was verified that broiler chickens are more susceptible to thermal stress in the third week of lifecycle.