M. Ed. / In South Africa many people have been directly or indirectly involved in criminal and/or violent acts either as victims or as perpetrators. Research has shown that violence in its various forms, be it political, criminal or domestic, is endemic in South Africa (Stravou, 1993; Turton, Straker & Moosa, 1992). According to Gibson, Mogale and Friedler (1991:1), political violence, especially in South African townships, has been enacted between the ANC and Inkatha and this violence is regarded as an extension of the years of a violent state of repression. As violence escalates it has become impossible to make a distinction between political and criminal violence. Rauch (1993:11), who points out that "it should also be borne in mind that ordinary criminal violence is not always distinguishable from political violence", supports this statement. Stravou (1993:3) echoes this in his observation that ordinary criminal violence can be caused by political factors, alcohol abuse, poverty, unemployment and dangerous living conditions. As both criminal and political violence increase in the townships, domestic and criminal acts against women and children in South Africa are rated the highest in the world (TV News, 13 May 1999). This is an indication that violence has not only destroyed individual lives, but also affected communities, children and family institutions. This notion is emphasized by Klaaste (no date, cited by Phetla 1998:31), when he stated that "The violence in this country, particularly in the townships, has destroyed more than just property and structures, it has destroyed the emotional institutions, the very substance of family life and society. In the past, there was always a very strong understanding of hierarchy, of who was who in the family". However, today the anchors have been destroyed, and there is nothing to hold many families together. This is a cause for concern, because families are the fabric of communities and societies. As families are affected, children who are the future generation of society, are also continually exposed to this violence. Children become victims because of their vulnerability and exposure to insecure and unstable environments in which they live. Many schools, which these children attend, were historically regarded as stabilizing influences on the social environment, providing necessary support and guidance for them have now turned into war zones. Young learners have to contend with guns and knives on a daily basis, an indication of how endemic the violence is in the learning environment. The Star (Thursday, May 12 1999) reported that a school principal was shot dead and her car taken in front of her learners. TV news (13 June 1999) reported that "another teacher has been brutally murdered in front of her grade one class by unknown gunmen". This situation occurs within the environment where children live, and appears to have serious repercussions later in their lives. Exposure to and involvement in escalating violence, both in their homes and neighbourhood, can lead to post traumatic stress syndrome in children (Kerr & Nelson, 1998:268). This includes nightmares, irritability and other forms of behavior problems like aggression. Stravou (1993:3) is of the opinion that witnessing a violent act, affect children in general more severely than adults. It can also be argued that violence and political instability will affect children's development adversely. In South Africa where 70% of the population is under the age of 18 years, the implications are devastating (Byne, 1993:3), especially in the townships. Katlehong, a township in the Eastern part of Gauteng, experienced tremendous violence during the years 1985-1995, because of the faction fights between two political parties, the African National Congress and the Inkatha Freedom party. Many people were killed, tortured, abducted and subjected to various forms of severe ill treatment. Reports like these are all too common in South African Black Townships, mixed in with miscellaneous reports of general community and domestic violence. Although among the people of Katlehong violence seems to be largely a thing of the past, its trauma remains and the children still bear the marks. Young people have become socialized to violence as a way of solving conflict. This attitude was indicated in a personal interview, which I conducted with teachers at the Kabelo Primary School prior to my study. In the interview one teacher had indicated that, "Most of our children are experiencing behaviour problems like aggression, and others experience difficulties in paying attention and concentrating in the classroom". This type of behaviour is regarded as the after effect of violence. As a result of the increase in violence, it has become clear that there is a vast need for psychological counseling for South African children who live in places like Katlehong, which have been constantly involved in acts of violence. Dawes (1994:6) supported the need for this service when he pointed out that "the need for psychological healing is overwhelming but, most unfortunately, for these children there are not enough psychological services to help alleviate these problems". It is not only the non-availability of these services that prevents children from accessing psychological interventions, but also a lack of knowledge about psychological difficulties and counseling among parents. Owing to this lack of knowledge, also with regard to possible interventions, society in the past tended to take a punitive rather than a rehabilitative, attitude towards an antisocial, aggressive youth (Carson & Butcher, 1992:545). In the townships, a punitive attitude was often to apply physical punishment in the form of corporal punishment; this, however, is seen as humiliating and antagonizing for children (Davis, 1996:291). In addition, corporal punishment has also shown to intensify rather than to correct aggressive behaviour, as reported by Omani (1982 cited by Mwamwenda, 1992:318) who argues that beating young children should be seen as an act of aggression that does not teach children conflict resolution. A study that supports this statement was carried out by Potegal and Knutson (1994:183), who reported in their finding that children who were struck after a simple tantrum had significantly higher frequencies of tantruming. Therefore, corporal punishment is regarded as an authoritarian and conservative way of disciplining children, that does not improve their abilities to deal with conflict nor deepen their understanding to their own emotional and social functioning. These results indicate that some variables that had been used in the past to deal with aggressive children can cause children to manifest antisocial behaviour like aggression (Farrington, 1992:260). From the researcher's experience, township parents often discipline their children by scolding them and they do not often encourage them, especially boys, to express their feelings freely. Scolding is regarded by Davis (1996:289) as verbal aggression, and is defined by Vissing, Straus, Eilees and Harrop (1991:224) as a communication intended to cause psychological pain. Its effects are low self-esteem, anger, anxiety, depression, academic underachievement and lying (Davis, 1996:289). Suppression of feelings among African children is indicated by Mandela's statement in his book "Long Walk to Freedom". When he recalled various aspects of his circumcision, he said that "flinching or crying out was a sign of weakness and stigmatized one's manhood; man must suffer in silence" (Mandela, 1995:12). According to Oaklander (1992:207) if a child is unable to express his feelings, he bottles them up, and becomes angry. In order for him to express his anger and his thwarted self, Oaklander (1990:208) adds that the child pushes on to "become something beyond his awareness, he can retroflect the anger by having headaches and stomach aches, or deflect the true feelings by hitting, kicking and striking out". Such a child is mostly regarded as aggressive, and according to Bierman (1989:36) children like this, who acquired non-compliant and violent behaviour patterns at home are at high risk for reacting aggressively towards their teachers and peers as an outward expression of emotional turmoil. Stravou (1993:11) is of the opinion that children learn to believe that aggressive attitudes and violent behaviour are normal and acceptable, in an environment where violence is viewed as an acceptable way to get and to maintain power and solve problems.

M. Psych. (Educational Psychology) / The high child sexual abuse rate in South Africa and all over the world makes these cases a reality for educational psychologists practising today. Equineassisted psychotherapy is a relatively new field in psychology, and research shows that this therapeutic intervention can have a very significant impact on people. Sexual abuse leaves children with psychological effects (Beitchman, Zucker, Hood, DaCosta & Akman, 1991) ranging from intrapersonal problems such as low self-esteem and feeling emotionally overwhelmed to interpersonal problems resulting in communication and relationship challenges (Mandrell, 2006). According to Kidson (2012), equine-assisted therapy deals very well with such issues as well as self-concept, self-efficacy and self-acceptance. These issues correlate well with the effects of child sexual abuse and the issues that the therapist needs to deal with in the therapeutic sessions (Conte & Scheumann, 2011). Seeing the possibilities that equine-assisted therapy held for a therapist working with a case of sexual abuse, I inquired in terms of the involved systemic influences and experiences. The study investigated the experiences of the therapist, the client and the parents when using equine-assisted psychotherapy in a case of sexual abuse. The study attempted to identify themes that could explain these experiences and maybe make a contribution to the field of equine-assisted psychotherapy, specifically pertaining to work with sexual abuse cases. I made use of a phenomenological, qualitative case study design to explore the experiences of the participants. The data collection methods included interviews, field notes and observations. Artefacts were used to aid the researcher in the observation process but also to help the researcher explain the findings in Chapter 4. Furthermore, creative expressive arts therapy tools were used in the interviews to assist the participants in expressing their experiences regarding the equine-assisted therapy process. Data was analysed using the phenomenological data analysis process. This process is al about “being true to the phenomenon”. The first step in this research was to transcribe the interview recordings. Using the transcribed text, the field notes and the observations, the researcher then identified units of general meaning. Out of the units of general meanings, themes were identified. In the findings, three themes were identified: equine-assisted therapy, an empowering life changing experience; the extent to which active engagement with horses assist in expressing emotions; and the equine-assisted therapy process and therapeutic experience. The limitations and strengths of the research were also explained and discussed. Subsequently, recommendations were made for possible future research that evolved from the study’s findings.

A multiple case study approach was employed in this intensive thematic analysis of the process of nondirective play therapy. Using a naturalistic research paradigm, this study undertook to identify and describe the principal verbal and play themes and their transformations emergent over a course of play therapy, as well as to identify and describe similarities and differences between the themes emergent in those two domains. Play and verbalization, two types of symbolic expression, were considered routes of access to the child’s evolution of personal meaning. The research participants in this multiple case study were 4 preschoolers, aged 3 to 4. Each participant received 20 weekly play therapy sessions which were videotaped and transcribed. Running notations were made on the verbatim transcripts as to participants’ play activities. Separate coding schemes were devised for the emergent play and verbal themes. Supplemental data collection, organization, and analysis procedures included a field notebook with post hoc descriptions of the sessions, session summary sheets profiling play and verbal themes, charts, and memos. This study, discovery-oriented and exploratory in nature, yielded rich descriptions of the intricacies of therapeutic change on two symbolic levels. From these descriptions were extracted not only information on the transformations in play and verbal themes but also an understanding of the qualitative changes which denote the phases of therapy, and insight into the process of evolving meaning across these phases. A central finding of this study was that the arrays of play and verbal themes and their patterns of transformations were highly individualized. However, a number of themes emerged in common to all cases: Exploration, Aggression, Messing, Distress, and Caregiving or Nurturance. Participants were observed to work through contrasting themes, with preschoolers’ therapy characterized as an active struggle with such intense, oppositional forces as birth and death, injury and recovery, loss and retrieval. Typical thematic transformations included movement from infantile vulnerability to mastery, from grief toward resolution, from fear to safety and protection. The beginning phase of therapy was found to be typified by exploratory play. The middle phase was typified by intensified involvement in play and by experiences of disinhibition. The end phase was characterized by two contrasting yet not mutually exclusive tendencies, namely, the introduction of a sense of hopefulness, confidence, and integration; and an improved capacity to deal with difficult psychological material. Entry into the middle and end phases was signalled by qualitative shifts in the child’s attentional, tensional, or relational state. The theoretical implications of this study included insight into the critical role of the child’s initiative and of the therapist’s permissiveness in the unfolding of symbolic expression. Each individual case contained specific theoretical implications for such classic problem and treatment phenomena as developmental delay and play disruptions. The practical implications of this study include emphasizing the need for practitioners to counterbalance attention to the child’s verbal expression with attention to transformations in play activity and play material usage. It is suggested that further research extend the ramifications of this exploratory study by examining the themes occurring in treatment within homogeneous populations according to problem configuration. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

There is a dearth of research available on child services in the community mental health setting in the fields of psychology and counseling. The purpose of this study was to conduct an experimental evaluation of university-based play therapy clinical services with children aged 3 to 10 years old and to explore dimensions of the effectiveness of child-centered play therapy (CCPT) with children. This study examined real-life clinical services to the largest number of child participants in decades of mental health research, especially in the field of play therapy. Archival data from cases of 364 children served through a university-based play therapy clinic in the southwestern United States was examined. The effectiveness of child-centered play therapy (CCPT) was measures by a decrease in a child's behavioral problems perceived by a parent/guardian measured by scores of the Internalizing Problems, Externalizing Problems and Total Problems on the Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL) and a reduction of parent-child relationship stress manifested in the Child Domain, Parent Domain and Total Stress Score on the Parenting Stress Index (PSI). Data from pretest and posttest was gathered for use in the analysis. Independent samples t-test, repeated measures analysis of variance, and ordinary least squares regression, including effect sizes, were utilized to detect the differences between groups and the treatment effects. After receiving individual CCPT, results of this study demonstrated statistically significant differences on overall CBCL and PSI measures, with the exception on Parent Domain. Additionally, findings highlighted the effectiveness of individual CCPT through demonstrated moderate to large effects over time (partial η2 = .097 to .201). Individual CCPT also revealed very large effects (η2 = .26 to .37) when specifically examined with participants who completed play therapy treatment. Further, statistically significant predictions were found on CBCL and PSI measures, with the exception on Total Problems. Termination and family relationship concern variables were found as strong contributors on predicting greater improvement. Based on the statistical, practical, and clinical significances, the primary contribution of this study is the fully exploration of child characteristics and effectiveness of play therapy for children who seek mental health services.

No description available.

The purpose of this study was to add to the limited amount of information on the effectiveness of play therapy interventions in a school-based counseling program. The study focused on examining the reasons why clients were referred to counseling, the frequency and duration of their behavior, the clients' academic performance at the beginning and end of treatment, the total number of sessions received, and the type of play therapy that was used to determine how effective play therapy interventions were during treatment.

Child-centered play therapy (CCPT) is an empirically supported and developmentally appropriate counseling intervention for young children. Despite the clinical effectiveness of CCPT with children, no known study has been conducted in which parents were surveyed or interviewed regarding the services they have received as a part of their children’s participation in CCPT. Therefore, this study was designed to gain a better understanding of parents’ reported needs and expectations in CCPT. This study utilized Q-methodology in which participants completed a Q-sort by actively sorting 40 items on a continuum of least important to most important. Items included services and processes regarded by CCPT scholars and child therapy practitioners as being important to working with parents. Data was collected from 19 parents of children receiving CCPT services in a community-based counseling clinic. Participants included 16 females and 3 males; 15 Caucasian and 4 Hispanic; and 14 biological parents, 2 adoptive parents, and 3 other biological caregivers. Data was analyzed using centroid factor analysis, and results revealed a one factor solution representing 18 of the 19 participants. Eighteen parents reported similar beliefs regarding the processes they consider most and least important to their experience in working with child-centered play therapists. In general, parents’ beliefs aligned with CCPT philosophy, particularly in regards to respecting children’s natural pace of development and healing. Furthermore, parents shared preferences for play therapists who demonstrate expert knowledge and training and who understand the individual needs of their children. Discussion includes implications for the practice of CCPT and training of future play therapists, limitations of the study, and implications for future research.

This study examined how current family counseling/therapy programs train students to work with families with young children and made recommendations for training in this area based on recommendations of child and family therapy experts and the research and clinical literature. These recommendations explored what knowledge and skills all students should acquire versus students who want to specialize with this population. Changes to accreditation standards were also proposed as well as a description of resources to support changes in program curricula. Current training was measured by examining curricula from master's level marriage and family counseling/therapy programs accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE) and the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs (CACREP) and master's level social work programs with a family-related concentration accredited by the Council on Social Work Education Commission on Accreditation (CSWE), the accreditation standards from these three organizations, course syllabi from the COAMFTE and CACREP programs, and surveys of COAMFTE and CACREP program directors (60% response rate). Recommendations for training were obtained through a qualitative analysis of quotations from the literature concerning training and through interviews of child and family therapy experts (65% response rate). The results revealed the number of courses recommended by the literature and experts was much greater than the number of child-related courses per program and a great variety of textbooks were used. Accreditation standards also required little child-related course material. The on-campus clinics had low percentages of child-related facilities but high percentages of child-related resources. The results also showed the experts recommended much greater percentages of experiential activities than were required by the programs. Finally, a much larger percentage of experts than program directors agreed that accreditation standards should be changed to include more child-related courses.

This report is a descriptive analysis of data obtained from the files of girls terminated from treatment at Albertina Kerr Center between January 1st, 1975 and July 1st, 1976. The purpose of the study is to identify factors that contribute to the high runaway rate which plagues the Center, and to offer the agency suggestions for dealing with the growing problem. Our findings suggest that there are two groups of residents who are apt to be prematurely terminated from the program due to running behavior. We have called the first group character disordered children, while the second consists of children who experience extreme separation anxiety when placed in the institution. The report concludes with recommendations for dealing with the identified groups.

This study concerns one fifteen year old boy in residential treatment in the State of Oregon. He is a diabetic, has been called emotionally disturbed and for nine years and eight months has been a ward of the Children's Services Division.