Ceramic articles intended to come into contact with foodstuffs are regulated in Europe through the Directive 84/500/EEC, which sets the permissible limits for lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) releasing from ceramic ware and describes the testing conditions to be used in measuring the amounts of Pb and Cd released. Scientific data have shown concern regarding the exposure to lead and cadmium, as well as to other elements, from ceramic ware. A revision of the Directive is expected, towards lowering the permissible limits for lead and cadmium and on extending the regulation to other metals. In the context of this revision of the Directive 84/500/EEC, the present work aims at discussing the content of the Directive in view of providing an efficient protection to the consumers. It comprises an experimental investigation on the release of Pb, Cd and other metals from ceramic articles, an exposure assessment to Pb and Cd, and a risk assessment. On this basis, new migration limits are proposed. In the experimental part, an analytical method enabling the simultaneous quantification of Pb, Cd and up to 17 other elements has been validated. To evaluate how the testing conditions of the Directive are representative of real-use conditions, the influence of a number of parameters on the amounts of metals released from commercial ceramic ware has been studied. More specifically, the nature of the food simulant (acetic acid vs. citric acid), the pH, the temperature or the heating conditions have been investigated, as well as the effect of successive migration tests representing the normal repeated use of real ceramic articles. The current Directive protocol proves to be sufficiently representative of hot filling conditions in the use of ceramic ware. However, the much higher release of metals under cooking conditions suggests an additional leaching test in relation to ceramic articles used for cooking or heating. A possible substitute testing method which can accelerate the migration process at room temperature has been put forward.Based on the migration behavior of ceramic ware, exposure to lead and cadmium from ceramic articles has been estimated with a stepwise approach from screening to refined deterministic and to probabilistic evaluation. This study further assesses the risk of exposure to lead and cadmium taking account other dietary sources. Attention has been paid to vulnerable groups such as children. Referring to the evaluated risk of lead and cadmium from total dietary exposure, the specific migration limits (SMLs) for lead and cadmium from ceramic FCMs are proposed. The specific migration limits of other elements potentially leaching from ceramic articles are subsequently established following certain criteria.Apart from lead and cadmium, it is suggested to add aluminum, barium, iron, nickel, lithium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc and chromium in the scope of the Directive, and SMLs are proposed for these elements. Collectively taking account toxicological reference values, exposure from foodstuffs and practical exposure scenario of ceramics, the proposal of SMLs is considered realistic. / Les articles en céramique à vocation alimentaire sont régulés en Europe par la Directive 84/500/EEC, qui établit les limites maximale autorisées de plomb et de cadmium cédées par ces objets en céramiques, sous des conditions d'essai décrites dans la Directive. Depuis 1984, date de la Directive, les données scientifiques concernant les effets néfastes du Pb et du Cd mais aussi d'autres métaux sur la santé se sont accumulés. Une révision de la Directive est donc en discussion, avec pour objectif de réduire les limites autorisée en Pb et Cd, et d'en étendre la portée à d'autres éléments. Dans ce contexte, la présente thèse discute le contenu de la Directive en vue d'une protection adéquate des consommateurs. Ce travail comprend une partie expérimentale dédiée à la cession du Pb, du Cd et d'autres éléments par des objets en céramique, une étude d'exposition au Pb et au Cd, et une analyse de risques. Sur cette base, de nouvelles limites autorisées sont proposées.Dans la partie expérimentale, une méthode analytique permettant la quantification simultanée du Pb, du Cd et jusqu'à 17 autres éléments a été implémentée et validée. Afin d'évaluer à quel point les conditions d'essai de la Directive sont représentatives d'une utilisation réelle des céramiques à usage alimentaire, l'influence de différents paramètres sur la quantité de métaux cédés a été examinée en détail. En particulier, la nature du simulant alimentaire (acide acétique vs. acide citrique), le pH, la température et les modes de chauffage ont été étudiés, de même que des essais de migration successifs, plus à même de représenter l'usage répété des céramiques dans la vie courante. Le protocole de la Directive actuelle est représentatif d'un usage de type remplissage par des liquides chauds (thé, café, soupe). Cependant, pour des usages de type cuisine à plus haute température, les quantités cédées sont beaucoup plus importantes et il est donc suggéré d'établir de nouveaux protocoles représentatif de ces conditions. Un protocole alternatif permettant d'accélérer l'essai de migration à température ambiante est également proposé.A la suite de cette partie expérimentale, une étude d'exposition au Pb et au Cd par le biais d'articles en céramique a été effectuée suivant trois approches incrémentales, à savoir une évaluation par criblage, une évaluation déterministe raffinée, et une évaluation probabiliste. Enfin, une analyse de risque intégrant d'autres sources alimentaires d'ingestion de métaux est développée. Une attention particulière a été accordée aux groupes vulnérables tels que les enfants.Sur base de ce travail, de nouvelles limites maximales autorisées sont proposées pour le plomb et le cadmium. En outre, il est proposé d'intégrer l'aluminium, le barium, le fer, le nickel, le lithium, le manganèse, le cobalt, le cuivre, le zinc, le chrome et l'arsenic dans l'objet de la Directive, et des limites autorisées sont proposées pour ces éléments. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This doctoral thesis was conducted in the framework of a co-supervised PhD between the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Sciences of the University of Turin and the Unit of Pharmacognosy, Bioanalysis and Drug Discovery of the Faculty of Pharmacy at the Université libre de Bruxelles. The present manuscript was conceived as a thesis of articles and is composed of 9 different scientific publications. The general introduction of the work was issued from a published narrative review, while the result and discussion part is composed by eight chapters based on different scientific articles issued from the PhD project. The cocoa bean shell (CBS) is the external tegument that covers the cocoa bean, and is one of the major by-products in cocoa industry. It is normally discarded or underutilized, which could result in economical and environmental issues. However, CBS represents a notable source of polyphenols and methylxanthines (theobromine and caffeine) which can give it different biofunctionalities such as antioxidant and antidiabetic properties, among others. It also contains high amounts of dietary fiber (about 50% w/w), minerals, vitamins, and proteins. CBS has low-fat content, and interesting cocoa-aroma compounds. All this could make CBS useful as a food ingredient, and source of biofunctional compounds. The first part of the experimental work of this thesis is devoted to the chemical characterization of CBS and the establishment of its polyphenolic and volatile organic compound (aroma) profiles. The utilization of such profiles, determined by both complete characterization methods and screening methods, was also proposed for authentication purposes of CBS depending on its geographical origin and variety. In a second step, the utilization of CBS as a low-cost food ingredient for functional food production was envisaged. CBS-based beverages and biscuits were proposed as model foods. The influence of the CBS addition to the model foods was evaluated from both technological and nutritional points of view. Changes on the physicochemical characteristics of the model foods were assessed as well as their content in compounds of interest and potential biofunctionalities. Moreover, these studies served also to evaluate the effect of the different food matrices on the bioaccessibility and intestinal permeability of the bioactive compounds contained in CBS. In the third and last part of this work, a different utility was given to the study of the cocoa by-product. The antimicrobial potential of CBS was assessed against different bacterial and fungal strains and a metabolomic strategy was applied in order to individualize the putative active compounds against the Streptococcus mutans proliferation. This work was a contribution for the valorization of a high add-value product such as the CBS, and a step towards a zero-waste cocoa industry within the frame of sustainable circular economy. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques (Pharmacie) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished