During chloroplast formation via endosymbiosis most of the plastid genome was transferred to the host nuclear genome. Genomic and proteomic analysis suggests that >95% of the original plastid proteome is now encoded in the nucleus, and these now cytosolically fabricated proteins require a post-translational transport pathway back into the organelle. This process is not well understood, yet it has been shown to involve translocons at the outer and inner envelope of the chloroplast membranes (TOC & TIC). These translocons interact with a cleavable N-terminal extension of between 20 and 100 residues on chloroplast-bound precursor proteins known as the transit-peptide. Precursor proteins pass through the outer membrane via the outer chloroplast membrane beta-barrel, Toc75. In addition to containing a transmembrane β-barrel, Toc75 also contains three polypeptide transport (POTRA) domain repeats at the N-terminus. Despite widespread occurrence the role of POTRAs is poorly understood. One possibility is that they function to promote either homo- or heterotypic protein:protein interactions. To investigate these possibilities, we modeled the psToc75 POTRA domains and purified recombinant POTRA domains. POTRA1, POTRA3, and POTRA1-3 have been used to investigate interactions. Homotypic POTRA interactions have been supported by crosslinking experiments and analytical ultra centrifugation (AUC). Crosslinking data shows POTRA1 and POTRA3 undergo oligimerization. AUC suggests that POTRA1 may homodimerize. Heterotypic interactions have been studied via pull-down assays, crosslinking, and AUC and demonstrate that POTRA1 and POTRA3 interact with transit peptide. Soluble POTRA1-3 seems to stimulate precursor protein import into isolated chloroplasts in an import assay. The role of POTRAs in guiding TOC assembly by homodimerization is being investigated, and experiments to establish how POTRAs aggregate are underway.

Most chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus and translated in the cytosol with an N-terminal transit peptide, which facilitates recognition by the receptors of the translocon at the outer membrane of chloroplasts (Toc). The Toc159 family of receptors in Arabidopsis thaliana are the primary chloroplast preprotein receptors. Members of this family differentially associate with either atToc33 or atToc34 (“at” designates the species of origin, Arabidopsis thaliana) to form structurally and functionally distinct Toc complexes; atToc159/33-containing complexes import photosynthetic preproteins, and atToc132(120)/34-containing complexes import non-photosynthetic, plastid house-keeping proteins. The Toc159 receptors are most variable in their N-terminal A-domain, suggesting that this domain may contribute to their functional specificity. The A-domain has structural properties characteristic of intrinsically unstructured protein (IUP) domains, including an abundance of acidic amino acid residues, aberrant mobility during SDS-PAGE and sensitivity to proteolysis. The overall objective of this study was to gain insight into the function of the A-domain. First, to investigate the role of the A-domain in the assembly of structurally distinct Toc complexes, full-length, truncated and domain-swapped variants of atToc159 and atToc132 were targeted in vitro to chloroplasts isolated from wild type (WT) Arabidopsis, and atToc33 and atToc34 null mutants (ppi1 and ppi3, respectively). Insertion of atToc132 was less efficient than atToc159, and was not affected by the removal or swapping of the A-domain. In contrast, removal of the A-domain of atToc159 resulted in decreased insertion, most notably into ppi1 chloroplasts, suggesting that the A-domain is important for insertion, especially into atToc34-containing complexes. These results indicate that the A-domain does play a role in targeting, and may also suggest different roles for the A-domain in targeting of atToc159 and atToc132. Second, a structural analysis of the A-domain of atToc132 and atToc159 was performed using CD and fluorescence spectroscopy to gain insight into their potential function(s). The A-domains were found to be unstructured at physiological pH, and their secondary structure increased with increasing temperature and decreasing pH, which are characteristics of IUPs. IUPs are commonly involved in protein-protein interactions, and their unstructured nature may suggest a role for the A-domains in binding transit peptides, accounting for the ability of the Toc159 receptors to differentially distinguish between a large number of diverse transit peptides that possess low sequence conservation.

Most chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus and translated in the cytosol with an N-terminal transit peptide, which facilitates recognition by the receptors of the translocon at the outer membrane of chloroplasts (Toc). The Toc159 family of receptors in Arabidopsis thaliana are the primary chloroplast preprotein receptors. Members of this family differentially associate with either atToc33 or atToc34 (“at” designates the species of origin, Arabidopsis thaliana) to form structurally and functionally distinct Toc complexes; atToc159/33-containing complexes import photosynthetic preproteins, and atToc132(120)/34-containing complexes import non-photosynthetic, plastid house-keeping proteins. The Toc159 receptors are most variable in their N-terminal A-domain, suggesting that this domain may contribute to their functional specificity. The A-domain has structural properties characteristic of intrinsically unstructured protein (IUP) domains, including an abundance of acidic amino acid residues, aberrant mobility during SDS-PAGE and sensitivity to proteolysis. The overall objective of this study was to gain insight into the function of the A-domain. First, to investigate the role of the A-domain in the assembly of structurally distinct Toc complexes, full-length, truncated and domain-swapped variants of atToc159 and atToc132 were targeted in vitro to chloroplasts isolated from wild type (WT) Arabidopsis, and atToc33 and atToc34 null mutants (ppi1 and ppi3, respectively). Insertion of atToc132 was less efficient than atToc159, and was not affected by the removal or swapping of the A-domain. In contrast, removal of the A-domain of atToc159 resulted in decreased insertion, most notably into ppi1 chloroplasts, suggesting that the A-domain is important for insertion, especially into atToc34-containing complexes. These results indicate that the A-domain does play a role in targeting, and may also suggest different roles for the A-domain in targeting of atToc159 and atToc132. Second, a structural analysis of the A-domain of atToc132 and atToc159 was performed using CD and fluorescence spectroscopy to gain insight into their potential function(s). The A-domains were found to be unstructured at physiological pH, and their secondary structure increased with increasing temperature and decreasing pH, which are characteristics of IUPs. IUPs are commonly involved in protein-protein interactions, and their unstructured nature may suggest a role for the A-domains in binding transit peptides, accounting for the ability of the Toc159 receptors to differentially distinguish between a large number of diverse transit peptides that possess low sequence conservation.

<p>An increasing number of chloroplast proteins have been found to interact with plant virus proteins. This is not surprising because these viruses cause various mosaic, mottles, and chlorosis symptoms on host leaves indicating damage to chloroplasts. A chloroplast protein, AtPsbP, was identified in a yeast two-hybrid screen as interacting with <i>Alfalfa mosaic virus</i> (AMV) coat protein (CP). AMV is a ssRNA virus with a wide host range including Arabidopsis. AtPsbP is an extrinsic subunit of photosystem II and with PsbQ is vital for water oxidation. We found that an RNAi knock-down of PsbP in <i>Nicotiana tabacum</i>, allowed increased replication of AMV and the development of quite severe disease symptoms in comparison to a wild-type <i>N. tabacum</i>. This suggested that PsbP plays an important role in plant resistance to AMV. PsbP, in addition to its role in photosynthesis, has been reported to interact with a wall-associated receptor kinase, WAK1, whereby it may affect plant defense signaling. We found that AtPsbP is a link between AtWAK1 and AMV CP at the plasma membrane. The formation of the AtWAK1-AtPsbP-AMV CP complex activated WAK1 kinase activity causing phosphorylation of PsbP and significant inhibition of AMV replication. We also found that the formation of the ternary complex induced the activation of the MAPK signal pathway. Analysis of the susceptibility of an Arabidopsis WAK1 knock-down indicated that WAK1, like PsbP, is critical for inhibiting AMV replication. Overall, we found a unique virus perception strategy, whereby a chloroplast protein (PsbP) interacts with a virus protein and then a Receptor-like kinase protein (WAK1) to transduce signals through the MAPK signaling pathway to activate defense responses.</p>