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Convective cold pools are important modulators of the onset and evolution of deep convection in the tropics. Cold pools are generated by downdrafts and can outlive the storms they originate from to spark new convection. However, most of our understanding of cold pool mechanics comes from high-resolution simulations and a relatively small number of in situ observational studies. This thesis brings novel observational approaches together with climate model data to understand the behavior of cold pools on a global scale and how a mesoscale weather behavior can be accounted for in a climate-scale simulation. First, we leverage a dataset derived from the Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) satellite instrument by Garg et al. (2020) to quantify seasonal variations in cold pool activity and their relationship to deep convection across tropical ocean basins. The dataset identifies gradient features (GFs) in the surface wind field, which have been shown to serve as reliable proxies for the boundaries of atmospheric cold pools. We examine the relationship between GFs and climatologies of precipitation, column relative humidity (CRH), and bulk vertical wind shear. We also collocate GFs with precipitation and CRH. High GF frequency, precipitation, and CRH coincide in many regions of the tropics, consistent with our understanding of the physical connections between precipitation and cold pool generation. On the other hand, climatological bulk wind shear is often low in convective regions, and there is a weak inverse correlation between GF frequency and bulk wind shear, while our prior expectation might have been that shear promotes cold pool formation. Compared to GF frequency, GF size shows a weaker relationship with the convective environment, with some of the largest GFs occurring at lower CRH values for a given rainfall rate. In a few exceptional regions and seasons, such as the Indian Ocean in northern hemisphere summer, the region of greatest precipitation does not coincide with the region of greatest GF frequency. These cases also have very high seasonal mean CRH, suggesting that in these regions cold pool formation is suppressed by reduced evaporation of precipitation. Following that, we apply the GF data set to the task of evaluating the realism of the cold pool parameterization in the GISS E3 earth model originally designed by Del Genio et al. (2015). We compare the GF data set to model results from six versions of the GISS model with perturbed parameters. Cold pools generated by the model have significantly different geographic distribution to satellite-observed GFs, particularly in critical convective regions. They also appear to be much less common than GFs, though they have a broadly similar dependence on column water vapor (CWV), especially in terms of size. Finally, we seek to understand the mechanics of the model cold pool parameterization on its own. A subset of high-time resolution model versions is used to deconstruct the behavior of the model parameterization at the scale of individual time steps. Our aim is to see what level of physical realism is associated with the emergent trends seen in the climatological statistics. We find that the model generates cold pool temperature and moisture depressions of similar magnitude to cold pools measured from ships, but tend to dissipate too quickly. Model cold pools also appear to spark increased precipitation, as they are designed to do, but that precipitation appears to come from the stratiform model parameterization, not the moist convection one. Together, these results provide a first opportunity to empirically evaluate a model parameterization originally developed using theory.

Modelling solar radiation data at a high spatiotemporal resolution for an urban environment can inform many different applications related to climate action, such as urban agriculture, forest, building, and renewable energy studies. However, the complexity of urban form, vastness of city-wide coverage, and general dearth of climatological information pose unique challenges doing so. To address some climate action goals related to reducing building emissions in the City of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, applied geomatics and climatology were used to model solar radiation data suitable for informing renewable energy feasibility studies, including photovoltaic system sizing, costing, carbon offsets, and financial payback. The research presents a comprehensive review of solar radiation attenuates, as well as methods of accounting for them, specifically in urban environments. A novel methodology is derived from the review and integrates existing models, data, and tools – those typically available to a local government. Using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), a solar climatology, Esri’s ArcGIS Solar Analyst tool, and Python scripting, daily insolation (kWh/m2) maps are produced for the city of Victoria. Particular attention is paid to the derivation of daily diffuse fraction from atmospheric clearness indices, as well as LiDAR classification and generation of a Digital Surface Model (DSM). Novel and significant improvements in computation time are realized through parallel processing. Model results exhibit strong correlation with empirical data and support the use of Solar Analyst for urban solar assessments when great care is taken to accurately and consistently represent model inputs and outputs integrated in a methodological approach. / Graduate

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, for completion of the Degree of' Master of Science / The atmospheric response of the Colorado State University Regional Atmospheric Modelling System (RAMS) to sea-surface temperature anomaliesis investigated. A period of four days was chosen from 21 to 24 January 1981, where focus was placed on the development and dissipation of a tropical-temperate trough across Southern Africa. Previous experimenting this mesoscalenumerical model have detemined the kinematic, moisture, and thermodynamic nature of these synoptic features. The research in this dissertation focuses specifically on the sensitivity of the numerical model's simulated responses to positive sea-surface temperature anomalies. Three separate experiments were devised, in which positive anomalous temperatures were added to the ocean surface north of Madagascar (in the tropical Indian Ocean), at the region of the Agulhas Current retroflection, and along the tropical African west coast (in the Northern Benguela and Angola currents). The circulation aspects of each sensitivity test were investigated through the comparison of simulated variables such as vapour and cloud mixing ratios, temperature, streamlines and vertical velocity, with the same variables created by a control simulation. The results indicate that for the first sensitivity test, (the Madagascar anomaly), cyclogenesis was initiated over the area of modified sea temperatures which resulted in a marginal decrease in continental precipitation. The second sensitivity test (over the Agulhas retroflection) produced a much smaller simulated response to the addition of anomalously warm sea temperatures than the tropical Indian Ocean anomaly. Instability and precipitation values increased over the anomalously warm retroflection region, and were slowly transferred along the westerly wave perturbation and the South African east coast. The third sensitivity experiment showed a predominantly localised simulated increase in precipitation over Gabon and the Congo, with the slow southward progression of other simulated circulation differences taking place. The small perturbations in each of the simulated meteorological responses are consistent with the expected climate response to anomalously warm sea-surface temperatures in those areas. / AC 2018

A heterogeneidade dos elementos que compreendem a climatologia tropical se evidencia no comportamento das chuvas nessa região macroclimática. Para tanto, compreender seu comportamento temporal e espacial assume grande relevância, em função do impacto dessas na dinâmica urbana e rural, bem como para seu planejamento estratégico. Verificar seu curso interanual em episódios diários é grande desafio, nesse sentido. Com isso, o estudo objetivou analisar as chuvas diárias na região de São Carlos/SP, a fim de compreender sua evolução temporal e espacial, além de avaliar possíveis tendências para essa, que se insere na dinâmica tropical (sazonalmente chuvoso/estiagem). Foram analisados 39 anos de dados diários de chuvas, em 7 postos pluviométricos, e que estiveram com, ao menos, 95% dos dados consistentes. Utilizou-se de índices climáticos (script RClimdex) e do Laplace trend factor para analisar os dados temporais históricos e de tendência. Observou-se que os valores dos índices flutuam entre as estações, mas que esses estão associados aos fenômenos da ZCAS (Zona de Convergência do Atlântico Sul) e dos SFs (Sistemas Frontais), que regem o clima no sudeste da América do Sul. Além disso, notou-se que o sul da área estudada apresenta maior concentração pluviométrica, em função dos aspectos geomorfológicos (e até de ocupação), bem como notou-se o aumento de episódios extremos de chuvas diárias. As chuvas diárias, portanto, tendem a concentração, uma vez que os volumes anuais diminuem ou aumentam (ciclicamente), mas notam-se precipitações pluviométricas mais intensas (mm) em dias chuvosos, além do aumento da tendência dos dias com chuvas extremas. Futuros estudos que ampliem a área de estudo e possíveis correlações poder-se-ão reafirmar tais resultados, conforme verificado em estudos prévios. / Rainfall shows the heterogeneity of tropical climatology. Temporal and spatial behavior is highly relevant to verify the impact on urban and rural dynamics and strategic planning. The inter-annual course in daily episodes is the biggest challenge in that regard. The objective of this study was to analyze daily rainfall in the São Carlos/SP region, understand its temporal and spatial evolution, as well as to evaluate possible trends for this, which are part of tropical (seasonally rainy/dry) dynamics. A total of 39 years of daily rainfall data were analyzed in 7 pluviometric stations, with at least 95% of the data consistent using Climatic indexes (RClimdex script), and the Laplace trend factor to analyze temporal and trend data. It was observed that the values of the indexes fluctuate between the stations. These are associated with the phenomena of the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ) and SFs (Frontal Systems), which regulates the climate in the south-east of South America. Also, the south of the studied area presents a higher rainfall concentration, due to the geomorphological (and even occupation) aspects, as well as the increase of extreme episodes of daily rains. Therefore, daily rains tend to concentrate, since annual volumes decrease or increase (cyclically), but the rainfall (mm) is more intense on rainy days, in addition to the increase in the tendency of the days with extreme rains. Future studies that broaden the area of study and possible correlations may reaffirm such results, as verified in previous studies.

(RS) e Santa Catarina (SC), Brasil meridional. Para tanto foram usados os dados diários e das normais climatológicas (1961-90) das estações do Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET). Foi elaborada uma caracterização climática da área de estudo, que forneceu o apoio para a contextualização do fenômeno. Os dados climatológicos básicos (temperaturas médias mensais compensadas, temperaturas mínimas absolutas e totais pluviométricos mensais) foram obtidos diretamente das normais climatológicas publicadas pelo INMET. Os dados referentes aos dias de neve foram compilados diretamente das observações do INMET para planilha eletrônica onde se totalizaram os dias de neve e foram calculadas médias e percentuais convencionais. Em termos sazonais, o período de ocorrência estende-se de maio até setembro, quando a massa de ar polar marítima (mP) tem maior atuação no sul do Brasil. O mês de julho concentra a maioria dos eventos, com mais de 40% dos dias de neve na maioria das estações analisadas. A trajetória do anticiclone móvel polar tem papel fundamental no entendimento do fenômeno, associando-se a maioria dos eventos com passagens interiores (i.e., continentais) do referido sistema atmosférico. As áreas mais altas do Brasil meridional, a partir da cota de 600 m, são as que apresentam as maiores médias anuais de dias com neve, com valores que chegam até a média de 1,8 dias/ano em Cambará do Sul e 2,7 dias/ano em São Joaquim (SC). Esse município possui as mais altas médias de ocorrência da neve. A área de maior recorrência do fenômeno foi chamada de “Planalto da Neve”, subdividida em dois setores: I, acima de 900 m e II, entre 600 m e 900 m. O referido Planalto possui 95.242 km² distribuídos no RS e SC, localizando-se no seu interior 90 cidades gaúchas e 101 catarinenses. A análise da variação inter-anual (com dados de São Joaquim, SC) indicou que, de toda a série estudada, apenas os anos de 1961, 1963, 1971, 1973, 1982 e 1986, não apresentam registro de neve. As nevadas mais relevantes ocorreram nos anos de 1965, 1975, 1988 e 1990. Os intervalos entre períodos de ausência de neve e de nevadas mais importantes indica um ciclo decadal na dinâmica do fenômeno. Apesar dos picos de precipitação em 1988 e 1990, não existe uma tendência de aumento da precipitação de neve naquela cidade. / This work analyzes the seasonal and spatial distribution of snow in Rio Grande do Sul (RS) and Santa Catarina (SC), southern Brazil. This analysis is based on the daily data and the Climatological Normals (1961-1990), coming from the local weather stations, maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET), to obtain the basic climatological data (compensated monthly medium temperatures, minimum absolute temperatures and monthly pluviometric totals). To contextualize the study of this phenomenon, the characterization of the climate was prepared for the region. The total days of snow, averages and conventional percentages were compiled directly from INMET observations. In seasonal terms, the occurrence period extends from May to September, when the marine polar air mass (mP) has greater influence in the south of Brazil. The month of July concentrated most of the events, with more than 40% of the days of snow in most of the analyzed stations. The polar anticyclone has a fundamental role in the understanding this phenomenon, associating most of the events with continental passages of this atmospheric system. The highlands of southern Brazil, starting at 600 m, present the largest annual averages of days with snow, values averaging from 1.8 day/year in Cambará do Sul (RS) to 2.7 day/year in São Joaquim (SC), the highest averages of snow occurrence. The area of occurrence of the phenomenon is called “Planalto da Neve”, and is subdivided in two sectors: 1) above 900 m and, 2) between 600 m and 900 m. This plateau possesses 95.242 km² and is spread out between RS and SC, comprising 90 municipalities of RS and 101 in SC. The analysis of the interannual variation considering the data from São Joaquim, SC ) indicated that, from the studied series, 1961, 1963, 1971, 1973, 1982 and 1986, did not register snow. The most relevant snowfalls happened in the years of 1965, 1975, 1988 and 1990. The intervals between periods with absence of snow and of more important snowfalls indicates a decadal cycle in the dynamics of the phenomenon. Regardless of the peaks in precipitation registered for 1988 and 1990, there is no trend in the increase of snow precipitation for São Joaquim.

(RS) e Santa Catarina (SC), Brasil meridional. Para tanto foram usados os dados diários e das normais climatológicas (1961-90) das estações do Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET). Foi elaborada uma caracterização climática da área de estudo, que forneceu o apoio para a contextualização do fenômeno. Os dados climatológicos básicos (temperaturas médias mensais compensadas, temperaturas mínimas absolutas e totais pluviométricos mensais) foram obtidos diretamente das normais climatológicas publicadas pelo INMET. Os dados referentes aos dias de neve foram compilados diretamente das observações do INMET para planilha eletrônica onde se totalizaram os dias de neve e foram calculadas médias e percentuais convencionais. Em termos sazonais, o período de ocorrência estende-se de maio até setembro, quando a massa de ar polar marítima (mP) tem maior atuação no sul do Brasil. O mês de julho concentra a maioria dos eventos, com mais de 40% dos dias de neve na maioria das estações analisadas. A trajetória do anticiclone móvel polar tem papel fundamental no entendimento do fenômeno, associando-se a maioria dos eventos com passagens interiores (i.e., continentais) do referido sistema atmosférico. As áreas mais altas do Brasil meridional, a partir da cota de 600 m, são as que apresentam as maiores médias anuais de dias com neve, com valores que chegam até a média de 1,8 dias/ano em Cambará do Sul e 2,7 dias/ano em São Joaquim (SC). Esse município possui as mais altas médias de ocorrência da neve. A área de maior recorrência do fenômeno foi chamada de “Planalto da Neve”, subdividida em dois setores: I, acima de 900 m e II, entre 600 m e 900 m. O referido Planalto possui 95.242 km² distribuídos no RS e SC, localizando-se no seu interior 90 cidades gaúchas e 101 catarinenses. A análise da variação inter-anual (com dados de São Joaquim, SC) indicou que, de toda a série estudada, apenas os anos de 1961, 1963, 1971, 1973, 1982 e 1986, não apresentam registro de neve. As nevadas mais relevantes ocorreram nos anos de 1965, 1975, 1988 e 1990. Os intervalos entre períodos de ausência de neve e de nevadas mais importantes indica um ciclo decadal na dinâmica do fenômeno. Apesar dos picos de precipitação em 1988 e 1990, não existe uma tendência de aumento da precipitação de neve naquela cidade. / This work analyzes the seasonal and spatial distribution of snow in Rio Grande do Sul (RS) and Santa Catarina (SC), southern Brazil. This analysis is based on the daily data and the Climatological Normals (1961-1990), coming from the local weather stations, maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET), to obtain the basic climatological data (compensated monthly medium temperatures, minimum absolute temperatures and monthly pluviometric totals). To contextualize the study of this phenomenon, the characterization of the climate was prepared for the region. The total days of snow, averages and conventional percentages were compiled directly from INMET observations. In seasonal terms, the occurrence period extends from May to September, when the marine polar air mass (mP) has greater influence in the south of Brazil. The month of July concentrated most of the events, with more than 40% of the days of snow in most of the analyzed stations. The polar anticyclone has a fundamental role in the understanding this phenomenon, associating most of the events with continental passages of this atmospheric system. The highlands of southern Brazil, starting at 600 m, present the largest annual averages of days with snow, values averaging from 1.8 day/year in Cambará do Sul (RS) to 2.7 day/year in São Joaquim (SC), the highest averages of snow occurrence. The area of occurrence of the phenomenon is called “Planalto da Neve”, and is subdivided in two sectors: 1) above 900 m and, 2) between 600 m and 900 m. This plateau possesses 95.242 km² and is spread out between RS and SC, comprising 90 municipalities of RS and 101 in SC. The analysis of the interannual variation considering the data from São Joaquim, SC ) indicated that, from the studied series, 1961, 1963, 1971, 1973, 1982 and 1986, did not register snow. The most relevant snowfalls happened in the years of 1965, 1975, 1988 and 1990. The intervals between periods with absence of snow and of more important snowfalls indicates a decadal cycle in the dynamics of the phenomenon. Regardless of the peaks in precipitation registered for 1988 and 1990, there is no trend in the increase of snow precipitation for São Joaquim.

(RS) e Santa Catarina (SC), Brasil meridional. Para tanto foram usados os dados diários e das normais climatológicas (1961-90) das estações do Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET). Foi elaborada uma caracterização climática da área de estudo, que forneceu o apoio para a contextualização do fenômeno. Os dados climatológicos básicos (temperaturas médias mensais compensadas, temperaturas mínimas absolutas e totais pluviométricos mensais) foram obtidos diretamente das normais climatológicas publicadas pelo INMET. Os dados referentes aos dias de neve foram compilados diretamente das observações do INMET para planilha eletrônica onde se totalizaram os dias de neve e foram calculadas médias e percentuais convencionais. Em termos sazonais, o período de ocorrência estende-se de maio até setembro, quando a massa de ar polar marítima (mP) tem maior atuação no sul do Brasil. O mês de julho concentra a maioria dos eventos, com mais de 40% dos dias de neve na maioria das estações analisadas. A trajetória do anticiclone móvel polar tem papel fundamental no entendimento do fenômeno, associando-se a maioria dos eventos com passagens interiores (i.e., continentais) do referido sistema atmosférico. As áreas mais altas do Brasil meridional, a partir da cota de 600 m, são as que apresentam as maiores médias anuais de dias com neve, com valores que chegam até a média de 1,8 dias/ano em Cambará do Sul e 2,7 dias/ano em São Joaquim (SC). Esse município possui as mais altas médias de ocorrência da neve. A área de maior recorrência do fenômeno foi chamada de “Planalto da Neve”, subdividida em dois setores: I, acima de 900 m e II, entre 600 m e 900 m. O referido Planalto possui 95.242 km² distribuídos no RS e SC, localizando-se no seu interior 90 cidades gaúchas e 101 catarinenses. A análise da variação inter-anual (com dados de São Joaquim, SC) indicou que, de toda a série estudada, apenas os anos de 1961, 1963, 1971, 1973, 1982 e 1986, não apresentam registro de neve. As nevadas mais relevantes ocorreram nos anos de 1965, 1975, 1988 e 1990. Os intervalos entre períodos de ausência de neve e de nevadas mais importantes indica um ciclo decadal na dinâmica do fenômeno. Apesar dos picos de precipitação em 1988 e 1990, não existe uma tendência de aumento da precipitação de neve naquela cidade. / This work analyzes the seasonal and spatial distribution of snow in Rio Grande do Sul (RS) and Santa Catarina (SC), southern Brazil. This analysis is based on the daily data and the Climatological Normals (1961-1990), coming from the local weather stations, maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia (INMET), to obtain the basic climatological data (compensated monthly medium temperatures, minimum absolute temperatures and monthly pluviometric totals). To contextualize the study of this phenomenon, the characterization of the climate was prepared for the region. The total days of snow, averages and conventional percentages were compiled directly from INMET observations. In seasonal terms, the occurrence period extends from May to September, when the marine polar air mass (mP) has greater influence in the south of Brazil. The month of July concentrated most of the events, with more than 40% of the days of snow in most of the analyzed stations. The polar anticyclone has a fundamental role in the understanding this phenomenon, associating most of the events with continental passages of this atmospheric system. The highlands of southern Brazil, starting at 600 m, present the largest annual averages of days with snow, values averaging from 1.8 day/year in Cambará do Sul (RS) to 2.7 day/year in São Joaquim (SC), the highest averages of snow occurrence. The area of occurrence of the phenomenon is called “Planalto da Neve”, and is subdivided in two sectors: 1) above 900 m and, 2) between 600 m and 900 m. This plateau possesses 95.242 km² and is spread out between RS and SC, comprising 90 municipalities of RS and 101 in SC. The analysis of the interannual variation considering the data from São Joaquim, SC ) indicated that, from the studied series, 1961, 1963, 1971, 1973, 1982 and 1986, did not register snow. The most relevant snowfalls happened in the years of 1965, 1975, 1988 and 1990. The intervals between periods with absence of snow and of more important snowfalls indicates a decadal cycle in the dynamics of the phenomenon. Regardless of the peaks in precipitation registered for 1988 and 1990, there is no trend in the increase of snow precipitation for São Joaquim.