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When Beverley Kingston remarked some years ago that the governess remained one of the ‘most elusive figures in the whole of Australian history’, she effectively exposed the gap in our knowledge about the lives of a relatively large body of women who had been employed as teachers in private families and ladies’ schools for the best part of a century. In Australia the experience of women who spent part of their lives, or indeed, a whole lifetime, as a governess has remained obscure. This is not surprising for governesses like most women, or perhaps it should be said, more than most women, were not found in public places but lived out their lives in private places, the home, the nursery, and the schoolroom. (For complete preface open document)

St. Augustine in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was a prosperous, multi-ethnic community that boasted trade connections throughout the Atlantic world. Shipping records demonstrate that St. Augustine had access to a wide variety of goods, giving residents choices in what they purchased, and allowing them to utilize their material possessions to display and reinforce their status. Likewise, their choice of residential design and location allowed them to make statements in regards to their place in the social order. St. Augustine was a unique city in the Spanish Empire; the realities of frontier living meant that inter-ethnic connection were common and often necessary for survival and social advancement. Inhabitants enjoyed a high degree of social mobility based on wealth rather than ethnicity or place of origin. Through entrepreneurship and hard work, many St. Augustinians took advantage of the city*s newfound prosperity and fluid social structure to better their economic and societal position. In sum, St. Augustine in the Second Spanish Period (1783-1821) was not a city in decay as the traditional historiography holds; rather, it was a vibrant community characterized by a frontier cosmopolitanism where genteel aspirations and local realities mixed to define the social order.

Esta dissertação investiga alguns aspectos da história das bebidas no século XVIII. A partir de uma caracterização inicial do processo de domesticação da embriaguez na Europa moderna, fornecemos a descrição de elementos do moralismo lusitano respeitantes à questão dos usos de vinho e aguardentes. Disso extraímos a hipótese de que a moderação teria sido o valor que orientou o comportamento alcoólico na sociedade portuguesa. Já na sociedade colonial, examinada nos dois capítulos finais, defendemos que o referido valor cumpriu a função ideológica de mascarar a experiência etílica dos habitantes daquelas paragens, experiência esta marcada por diferentes formas de beber e de embriaguez. Numa sociedade organizada para a expropriação de recursos valendo-se de mão-de-obra escrava, o beber moderado entrou em choque com as diversas circunstâncias apresentadas aos colonizadores nos trópicos. / This study investigates some aspects of the history of drinks in the eighteen century. From an initial characterization of the domestication process of being drunk in the modern era, provides the key element of moralism Lusitanian relating to the question of the uses of wine and spirits. From this we extract the hypothesis that moderation would be the value that guided the alcoholic behavior in Portuguese society. In the colonial society, examined in the last part, we argue that the value of the ideological function served to mask the experience of the inhabitants of those areas, this experience marked by different forms of drinking and drunkenness. In a society organized for the expropriation of resources by availing itself of slave labor, moderate drinking has clashed with the different circumstances presented to the colonists in the tropics.

This thesis studies the West Indian press from three perspectives. The fIrst examines newspapers as economic entities, and involves an analysis of capital, equipment, patterns of ownership, and workforce. This section concludes with an examination of the social and economic standing of colonial editors. The second approach concentrates on the political role of the press during a period of tension. The relationships between the press and the component parts of colonial society are discussed seperately. The complex relationship between whiteowned newspapers and the non-white sectors of the populace is considered. Much of this section is devoted to the free coloured press. The volatile relationship between newspapers of all political persuasions and the various branches of colonial Government is examined. The third facet of the thesis grows naturally from the previous two modes of analysis, and is more implicit than explicit. It acknowledges the dangers in crudely identifying editorial columns as public opinion, but suggests that events involving the press constitute a series of snapshots exposing details of colonial life largely absent from official correspondence. The conclusion of the thesis attempts to chart some aspects of the political culture of the colonies. It argues that participatory impulses, long present in white society, received a series of stimuli during the 1820's and 1830's which greatly increased colonial political activity. For the press this led to the development of politically-motivated free coloured newspapers and a defensive invigoration of planter newspapers. Thus, there was a broadening of colonial political culture, but in ways which reflected the different priorities of the white and free coloured groups. In slavebased societies these differences generated irreconcilable conflicts, many of whIch were both revealed and sharpened by the involvement of the press.

Esta dissertação investiga alguns aspectos da história das bebidas no século XVIII. A partir de uma caracterização inicial do processo de domesticação da embriaguez na Europa moderna, fornecemos a descrição de elementos do moralismo lusitano respeitantes à questão dos usos de vinho e aguardentes. Disso extraímos a hipótese de que a moderação teria sido o valor que orientou o comportamento alcoólico na sociedade portuguesa. Já na sociedade colonial, examinada nos dois capítulos finais, defendemos que o referido valor cumpriu a função ideológica de mascarar a experiência etílica dos habitantes daquelas paragens, experiência esta marcada por diferentes formas de beber e de embriaguez. Numa sociedade organizada para a expropriação de recursos valendo-se de mão-de-obra escrava, o beber moderado entrou em choque com as diversas circunstâncias apresentadas aos colonizadores nos trópicos. / This study investigates some aspects of the history of drinks in the eighteen century. From an initial characterization of the domestication process of being drunk in the modern era, provides the key element of moralism Lusitanian relating to the question of the uses of wine and spirits. From this we extract the hypothesis that moderation would be the value that guided the alcoholic behavior in Portuguese society. In the colonial society, examined in the last part, we argue that the value of the ideological function served to mask the experience of the inhabitants of those areas, this experience marked by different forms of drinking and drunkenness. In a society organized for the expropriation of resources by availing itself of slave labor, moderate drinking has clashed with the different circumstances presented to the colonists in the tropics.

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Text in Afrikaans / Die verskillende pre-koloniale samelewings in suidelike-Afrika bet in die laat 18de en vroee 19de eeue reeds 'n herkenbaar moderne vorm begin aanneem, toe hulle identiteit deur koloniale intervensie 'gevries' is. Die verhouding wat met verloop van tyd tussen hierdie samelewings en die indringende koloniste ontwikkel het, is grotendeels gebaseer op persepsies en houdinge wat reeds sedert die 17de, 18de en veral die 19de eeu weens die kontak 'n definitiewe vorm begin aanneem het. Hierdie kan as 'n proses van historiese voorstelling ("historical imaging") beskryf word. In die proefskrif word die agtergrond van hierdie pre-koloniale samelewings geskets en die historiese ontstaan van een samelewing word as tersaaklike voorbeeld bespreek. Die verhoudinge wat plaaslik as gevolg van die proses van koloniale intervensie ontstaan bet, gee met verloop van tyd aanleiding tot die beleid van af sander like ontwikkeling, waarvan die toepassing oar 'n periode van nagenoeg 50 jaar in 'n groat mate bygedra het om die identiteit van hierdie besondere samelewing op 'n besonderse wyse te vorm. Om hierdie beleid van afsonderlike ontwikkeling suksesvol toe te pas, was daar vanaf die regering van die <lag vier mikpunte waaraan voldoen moes word. Dit is deur middel van wetgewing, oorreding en manipulering bewerkstellig. Die eerste mikpunt het die ontwikkeling van 'n afsonderlike politieke bestel vir die swartmense behels, sodat hulle op 'selfstandige' wyse beheer oar die 'state' wat vir hulle geskep sou word, kon uitoefen. Die tweede mikpunt was die daarstelling van 'n eie grondgebied waarbinne die iii mense saamgevoeg kon word en wat as basis sou dien vir die fisiese skeiding tussen swartmense en blankes. Die politieke mag wat vir hulle geskep is, sou net binne die grense van hierdie eie grondgebied uitgeleef kon word. Om die beleid suksesvol tot volvoering te kon bring, moes daar ook 'n strategie vir ekonomiese oorlewing gei'mplimenteer word. Die derde mikpunt was die ekonomiese self standigmaking van elk van die gebiede. Aangesien die grondgebied wat aan hierdie mense afgestaan is totaal onvoldoende was, moes daar verskillende strategiee ontwikkel word vir hul voortbestaan - enersyds deur die regering en andersyds deur die inwoners. Laastens sou al die mense binne 'n grondgebied tot 'n homogene eenheid saamgesnoer moes word. Daar is gevolglik gepoog om 'n eie identiteit vir die inwoners van elk van die gebiede te skep. Die strategie het grootliks op 'n etniese grondslag berus en was van sodanige aard dat dit die verskille tussen die groepe beklemtoon het. Die proses van die konstruksie van identiteit is aan die lig gebring deur navorsing wat onder die Hananwa, 'n Noord-Sotho-sprekende groep mense woonagtig in die weste van Noordelike Provinsie, gedoen is. Hierdie 'konstruksieproses' was egter nie eensydig nie en die Hananwa het, soos wat dit hulle gepas het, aktief daaraan deelgeneem. Die navorsingsproses het die toepassing van 'n multi-dissiplinere benadering behels, wat hoof saaklik van antropologiese, maar ook argeologiese en historiese metodologie gebruik gemaak het. / The various pre-colonial societies of southern Africa emerged in a recognizable modern form during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when they were 'frozen' in their identities by colonial intervention. The relationships that developed with time between these societies and the colonial powers, were largely based upon perceptions and attitudes that developed since the 17th, 18th and especially the 19th centuries as a result of this contact. This latter process has been described as a process of historical imaging. In this thesis, the background to these pre-colonial societies is given and the historical development of one such society is discussed as a relevant example. The relationships that resulted locally because of this process of colonial intervention eventually gave rise to a policy of separate development, the implementation of which over a period of close to 50 years largely contributed to the creation of the identity of this particular society. As prerequisite for this policy to be successful, four aims that had to be successfully implemented were identified by the government of the day. This was done by means of legislation, persuasion and manipulation. The first aim was the development of a separate political system for black people, by which they could 'independently' govern themselves in the 'states' that were to be created for them. Secondly, for this political mechanism to work, it was necessary to establish a separate area or 'state', where the black people could live and govern themselves. The political power created for them could only be used within the v boundaries of these states. Furthermore, these states would also serve to separate whites and black people from each other. Thirdly, for this policy to work, it was necessary to develop a strategy for the economic survival of the people in these states. As the areas set aside for them were totally inadequate, a number of strategies were developed for their economic survival - on the one hand by the authorities and on the other hand by the inhabitants of these areas themselves. The last aim was to unite all the inhabitants within each of these states into one group. It was therefore tried to establish an identity or image for all the inhabitants of each of these areas. This strategy was largely based on ethnic principles, with particular emphasis on the differences between the various groups. This process of the construction of identity is discussed with reference to a specific society, known as the Hananwa, a Northern-Sotho-speaking people living in the west of the Northern Province. Amongst the Hananwa, this 'construction process' was not one-sided and they took an active part in it as it suited their particular need at a specific time. The research strategy was based on a multi-disciplinary approach that employed mainly anthropological methods, but also included archaeological and historical methodology. / Anthropology and Archaeology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Anthropology)

Text in Afrikaans / Die verskillende pre-koloniale samelewings in suidelike-Afrika bet in die laat 18de en vroee 19de eeue reeds 'n herkenbaar moderne vorm begin aanneem, toe hulle identiteit deur koloniale intervensie 'gevries' is. Die verhouding wat met verloop van tyd tussen hierdie samelewings en die indringende koloniste ontwikkel het, is grotendeels gebaseer op persepsies en houdinge wat reeds sedert die 17de, 18de en veral die 19de eeu weens die kontak 'n definitiewe vorm begin aanneem het. Hierdie kan as 'n proses van historiese voorstelling ("historical imaging") beskryf word. In die proefskrif word die agtergrond van hierdie pre-koloniale samelewings geskets en die historiese ontstaan van een samelewing word as tersaaklike voorbeeld bespreek. Die verhoudinge wat plaaslik as gevolg van die proses van koloniale intervensie ontstaan bet, gee met verloop van tyd aanleiding tot die beleid van af sander like ontwikkeling, waarvan die toepassing oar 'n periode van nagenoeg 50 jaar in 'n groat mate bygedra het om die identiteit van hierdie besondere samelewing op 'n besonderse wyse te vorm. Om hierdie beleid van afsonderlike ontwikkeling suksesvol toe te pas, was daar vanaf die regering van die <lag vier mikpunte waaraan voldoen moes word. Dit is deur middel van wetgewing, oorreding en manipulering bewerkstellig. Die eerste mikpunt het die ontwikkeling van 'n afsonderlike politieke bestel vir die swartmense behels, sodat hulle op 'selfstandige' wyse beheer oar die 'state' wat vir hulle geskep sou word, kon uitoefen. Die tweede mikpunt was die daarstelling van 'n eie grondgebied waarbinne die iii mense saamgevoeg kon word en wat as basis sou dien vir die fisiese skeiding tussen swartmense en blankes. Die politieke mag wat vir hulle geskep is, sou net binne die grense van hierdie eie grondgebied uitgeleef kon word. Om die beleid suksesvol tot volvoering te kon bring, moes daar ook 'n strategie vir ekonomiese oorlewing gei'mplimenteer word. Die derde mikpunt was die ekonomiese self standigmaking van elk van die gebiede. Aangesien die grondgebied wat aan hierdie mense afgestaan is totaal onvoldoende was, moes daar verskillende strategiee ontwikkel word vir hul voortbestaan - enersyds deur die regering en andersyds deur die inwoners. Laastens sou al die mense binne 'n grondgebied tot 'n homogene eenheid saamgesnoer moes word. Daar is gevolglik gepoog om 'n eie identiteit vir die inwoners van elk van die gebiede te skep. Die strategie het grootliks op 'n etniese grondslag berus en was van sodanige aard dat dit die verskille tussen die groepe beklemtoon het. Die proses van die konstruksie van identiteit is aan die lig gebring deur navorsing wat onder die Hananwa, 'n Noord-Sotho-sprekende groep mense woonagtig in die weste van Noordelike Provinsie, gedoen is. Hierdie 'konstruksieproses' was egter nie eensydig nie en die Hananwa het, soos wat dit hulle gepas het, aktief daaraan deelgeneem. Die navorsingsproses het die toepassing van 'n multi-dissiplinere benadering behels, wat hoof saaklik van antropologiese, maar ook argeologiese en historiese metodologie gebruik gemaak het. / The various pre-colonial societies of southern Africa emerged in a recognizable modern form during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when they were 'frozen' in their identities by colonial intervention. The relationships that developed with time between these societies and the colonial powers, were largely based upon perceptions and attitudes that developed since the 17th, 18th and especially the 19th centuries as a result of this contact. This latter process has been described as a process of historical imaging. In this thesis, the background to these pre-colonial societies is given and the historical development of one such society is discussed as a relevant example. The relationships that resulted locally because of this process of colonial intervention eventually gave rise to a policy of separate development, the implementation of which over a period of close to 50 years largely contributed to the creation of the identity of this particular society. As prerequisite for this policy to be successful, four aims that had to be successfully implemented were identified by the government of the day. This was done by means of legislation, persuasion and manipulation. The first aim was the development of a separate political system for black people, by which they could 'independently' govern themselves in the 'states' that were to be created for them. Secondly, for this political mechanism to work, it was necessary to establish a separate area or 'state', where the black people could live and govern themselves. The political power created for them could only be used within the v boundaries of these states. Furthermore, these states would also serve to separate whites and black people from each other. Thirdly, for this policy to work, it was necessary to develop a strategy for the economic survival of the people in these states. As the areas set aside for them were totally inadequate, a number of strategies were developed for their economic survival - on the one hand by the authorities and on the other hand by the inhabitants of these areas themselves. The last aim was to unite all the inhabitants within each of these states into one group. It was therefore tried to establish an identity or image for all the inhabitants of each of these areas. This strategy was largely based on ethnic principles, with particular emphasis on the differences between the various groups. This process of the construction of identity is discussed with reference to a specific society, known as the Hananwa, a Northern-Sotho-speaking people living in the west of the Northern Province. Amongst the Hananwa, this 'construction process' was not one-sided and they took an active part in it as it suited their particular need at a specific time. The research strategy was based on a multi-disciplinary approach that employed mainly anthropological methods, but also included archaeological and historical methodology. / Anthropology and Archaeology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Anthropology)