The purpose of the study was to investigate if a relationship exists between levels of combat experienced by Vietnam veterans and later perceptions of violence, violent attitudes, and violent participants: heavy combat Vietnam veterans; light combat Vietnam veterans; Vietnam era veterans; and non-veteran (civilian) friends of Vietnam veterans.Calvert's Brief Demographic Questionnaire (BDQ), Part 2, checked pre-military predisposition toward having later problems; Figley's Combat Experience Questionnaire (CEO) divided Vietnam combat veterans into heavy and light categories; Wilson's Vietnam Veteran Scenario and Questionnaire examined perceptions of violence by Vietnam veterans; Bardis' A Violence Scale investigated violent attitudes; and Straus' Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales (adapted) measured behavioral violence. The .05 level of statistical significance was used.Findings1. None of the four groups were predisposed to having later problems as measured by Calvert's BDO, Part 2.2. There were no significant differences among groups in perceiving the Vietnam veteran in Wilson's Scenario as being violent.3. Bardis' scale indicated no group differences in terms of having violent attitudes.4. Vietnam combat veterans did not score significantly higher on a majority <6 of 10) of CT Scale items measuring violent behavior.Conclusions1. Based upon the results of this study, any problems Vietnam combat veterans might have with violence seem unrelated to their pre-military experiences. Also, their experiences in Vietnam may or may not be related to later violent behavior.2. Previous combat may lower the threshold in perceiving violence.3. Levels of combat appear to be unrelated to later violent attitudes.4. Neither heavy nor light combat Vietnam veterans appear to engage in violent behavior more than their peers.Recommendations1. Future studies should continue to utilize Figley's Combat Experience Scale and Straus' Conflict Tactics Scales (adapted) as standard tools in Vietnam veteran research.2. Future research should include a check of pre-military predisposition.3. It is recommended that future research utilize a larger Vietnam veteran sample to see: (1) if heavy combat veterans will then score significantly higher on a behavioral violence measure; and (2) if Vietnam era veterans will outscore light combat vets, and, if so, why?

Ten men participated in this study; all had fathers who served six months or more in active combat during World War II. Each son was asked about his relationship with his father specific to the father's combat experience. Each interview was audiotaped and transcribed. From each transcribed interview a narrative was developed representing the life story of growing up with a combat veteran father. Reading across all ten narratives, eight themes were extracted that were consistent for seven to ten of the participants. Two follow-up questions were later asked of each participant. These questions were also taped and transcribed and formulated into themes. The four most important themes were: avoiding the topic of combat, emotional distancing, father's perceived change in personality because of the war, and wanting to have more intimate time with their fathers growing up. Fifty-five years after the end of World War II there remains a residual effect on these sons. It is anticipated that this research will assist Canada's Peacekeepers in adjusting to their civilian life as they raise their families.

Ten men participated in this study; all had fathers who served six months or more in active combat during World War II. Each son was asked about his relationship with his father specific to the father's combat experience. Each interview was audiotaped and transcribed. From each transcribed interview a narrative was developed representing the life story of growing up with a combat veteran father. Reading across all ten narratives, eight themes were extracted that were consistent for seven to ten of the participants. Two follow-up questions were later asked of each participant. These questions were also taped and transcribed and formulated into themes. The four most important themes were: avoiding the topic of combat, emotional distancing, father's perceived change in personality because of the war, and wanting to have more intimate time with their fathers growing up. Fifty-five years after the end of World War II there remains a residual effect on these sons. It is anticipated that this research will assist Canada's Peacekeepers in adjusting to their civilian life as they raise their families. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

Despite the growing need, prior research on how the civilian work domain may affect posttraumatic stress is scarce. Moreover, few if any studies have investigated how perceptions of one's job and insomnia may shape traumatic stress symptoms, post-combat. Presently, about 4 million Americans have served in the "Global War on Terrorism," including nearly 1 million reservists. By contrast, 8.7 million Americans served in the Vietnam War: over twice the number of U.S. military personnel who have fought since 9/11. Surprisingly, combat experiences alone do not explain the majority of posttraumatic stress disorder cases, even after multiple deployments, suggesting the presence of moderators of the stressor-strain conceptual model. Based in occupational stress theories of allostatic load, job demands-resources, strain, and social support this thesis applied frequentist and Bayesian analytical strategies to investigate the psychological experiences and occupational health of three subgroups of combat veterans. In the present study, sleep quality and a job situation characterized by isolated, demanding civilian work with low decision authority (i.e., "iso-strain") were hypothesized to moderate the effect of combat experiences on posttraumatic stress. As part of the larger SERVe reintegration project, survey data were collected among a baseline sample (N=382) of post-9/11 veterans living in the Pacific Northwest. The research question of whether greater perceived psychosocial stressors among active reservists driving that group's higher perceived levels of poor sleep, iso-strain, and posttraumatic stress was unfounded. Overall, however, the central hypotheses of the simple effects of iso-strain and sleep quality on posttraumatic stress following combat were significant.

Thesis (MCom)--Stellenbosch University, 2015 / ENGLISH ABSTRACT : The continued and ever growing involvement of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) to complex peacekeeping operations over the African continent has opened a platform in the academic field to better sharpen the SANDF’s performance and contribution to achieve peace in Africa. Previous deployments to various African countries has tested the SANDF’s level of preparedness. Although the organisation gives effort to train its forces to reach the desired level of combat readiness, the nature of the operations to which soldiers partake in has proven to be more demanding. This study was driven by the need to explore and provide a broader perspective of what constitute combat readiness. Utilising the SANDF, the study aimed to explore the relationship between the soldier’s relationship with the spouse (RWS) and the soldier’s relationship with the unit (RWU), and hardiness as a possible mediator variable to combat readiness (CR). Previous research and theories were explored to provide a theoretical background for the study variables. A non-experimental controlled inquiry was used to test the hypothesised relationship among the variables. A sample of 363 participants (across ranks, gender and race) was randomly selected from South African Infantry Battalion Group mobilising for a deployment to Sudan. Hypothesised relationships among the independent variables, mediator variable and dependent variable was determined using the correlational analysis (Spearman correlation). Partial Least Squares (PLS) – measurement and structural model was used to test the study model for combat readiness. The results showed significant correlations between the soldier’s RWS and CR. Furthermore, significant correlations were found between soldier’s RWU and CR. Partial mediation was explained by the path coefficients from RWU>hardiness>CR. No full mediating effect was found. The results also showed insignificant correlations between soldiers RWS and hardiness (rather than between soldier’s RWS and CR. These results were in support to previous research and proved to add insight to future research on CR. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Geen opsomming beskikbaarbaar nie.

The objective of this study was to examine the relations between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder symptomatology and intelligence. Thirty American combat veterans of the Vietnam War, diagnosed with chronic PTSD, were given a psychodiagnostic structured interview. Participants were assessed for Intelligence Quotient as well as the veracity of their self report. The study found that there were significant differences in how participants experienced their PTSD symptoms that were correlated with intelligence. The higher IQ participants reported more frequent and intense guilt related symptoms as well as more intense intrusive recollections. The lower IQ participants experienced more frequent startle responses, more intense problems related to falling or remaining asleep and more frequent affective symptoms related to emotional numbing. Psychologists could use these differences in how PTSD is experienced in treatment planning. It may be useful for therapy to address sleep disturbances and affective numbing in lower IQ individuals. Therapy for higher IQ individuals may be more useful if it addresses feelings of guilt and intrusive recollections.

This project investigated the relations between recalled job-satisfaction, ability, and task demands in Vietnam era helicopter aviators. It attempted to detect and describe factors present in a dangerous combat environment which may influence some individuals to enjoy and take satisfaction at being exposed to, creating, and participating in the dangerous and life threatening violence involved in helicopter combat. Participants were 30 pilots and crew members retired from the 335th Assault Helicopter Company who were all actively involved in combat in Vietnam from 1968 to 1970. This study found that developing a love of war is correlated with anger during combat. The love of war is not correlated with PTSD processes nor is it correlated with specific personality dimensions. The love of war research is a new area. The questions were used to operationalize the love of war represent a significant limitation. This method of operationalizing the love of war concept does not make fine discriminations has questionable content validity. To facilitate accuracy in discriminating between participants when conducting future research in the area, researchers could benefit from constructing a measure with greater content validity.

Since 2002, the number of veterans enrolled in universities has nearly doubled, although 30-40% of veterans fail to complete their degree. While research efforts to understand the challenges veterans face transitioning from military life to college has increased in recent years, few studies have looked beyond the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Insomnia is the most frequently reported symptom of combat veterans and can have serious implications for college students. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of insomnia and student veteran adaptation to college relative to civilian students. College students (N = 588) were administered a Background Information Questionnaire, the Insomnia Severity Index, the Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory, and the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire. Results revealed that students with insomnia reported significantly lower adaptation to college than students without insomnia. Student veterans reported better academic and personal-emotional adaptation to college than civilian students, while civilians reported better social adjustment than veterans. Although combat veterans without insomnia scored consistently higher academic adjustment than non-combat veterans and civilian students, when present insomnia seemed to have a greater negative effect on combat veterans’ academic adjustment relative to civilian students. Furthermore, insomnia mediated the relationship between combat exposure and veteran’s personal-emotional adjustment to college. Implications and future directions for research are discussed.

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Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African National Defence Force (SANDF) is deploying locally, regionally and internationally for peacekeeping operations and tasks other than peacekeeping. It is imperative that it succeed in these missions in order for the country, region and the world to develop. However, in order for the SANDF to realize success those responsible for the task of peacekeeping have to be combat ready, and particularly perceive themselves to be combat ready, they have to measure high on psychological wellbeing and should have no psychosocial and/or psychological problems such as depression, anxiety and social dysfunction, but must have a high level of willingness to deploy. SANDF deployment in Africa is voluntary and depends on those members who are willing to deploy to extract Africa out of the mire of squalor and poverty and conflict. It is only when there is peace that development and proper governance can be achieved, hence the need to use the SANDF as a foreign policy tool to bring about peace in Africa. The aim of the study was to explore the impact of psychological wellbeing (PWB) general health (GH) and perceived combat readiness (PCR) on willingness to deploy (WD) in the SANDF. A non-experimental, exploratory study was employed this study. Participants were drawn from the Army (n=465) from the rank of private to colonel. Participants completed valid reliable instruments measuring PWB; PCR; GH; and WD. PWB was measured in terms of self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, purpose in life, environmental mastery, and personal growth. PCR was measured in terms of family support, confidence (in all its dimensions), morale, and cohesion and unit discipline. GH was measured in terms of somatic symptoms, anxiety/insomnia, social dysfunction and depression. WD was measured by using 12 questions with a sample question such as: “In the event of an invasion by an enemy force into the RSA, to what extent will you be willing to go into combat?” Correlation analysis was done to determine the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable. Multiple regression analysis was done to determine which of the independent variables contributed most to WD of members of the SANDF The results revealed a significant positive relationship between PWB (and its dimensions, except self-acceptance and positive relations with others) and WD, and PCR (and its dimensions, except unit disciple) and WD. GH was annulled for its potential not to explain any variance in the model because almost all participants scored zero on all subscales. The multiple regression analysis was in line with correlation results showing that total PCR (strongest predictor) made a significant contribution in explaining and predicting WD. PWB made a contribution in explaining and predicting WD, but not as strong as PCR. The PCR dimensions that individually contribute significantly in explaining and predicting WD are self-confidence, horizontal cohesion and confidence in the leader. The conclusion that is drawn from this study is that total PCR and total PWB contribute to willingness to deploy.