University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Economics

Thesis (D. Jur.)--York University, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 377-399). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/yorku/fullcit?pNQ59160.

Sammanfattning Bredbands- och digital-TV-marknaden växer kraftigt och det är av stor betydelse ur konsumentsynpunkt att företagen tillämpar skäliga avtalsvillkor. I denna uppsats granskas ett antal standardavtal utfärdade av företagen på respektive marknad. Företagen vars villkor vi analyserar är Universal Telecom, Glocalnet och Tyfon Svenska AB som tillhandahåller bredbandstjänster, samt Viasat, Boxer och Canal Digital, som levererar digital-TV. Det rör sig i dessa fall om ensidigt upprättade standardavtal där konsumenten inte har möjlighet till individuell förhandling. Syftet med uppsatsen är att bringa klarhet i hur man går tillväga vid en oskälighetsbedömning av villkor i standardavtal riktade till konsumenter samt vilken lagstiftning som till övervägande del används inom området. Vi vill även utreda om dessa avtal innehåller oskäliga avtalsvillkor samt i förekommande fall presentera vilka slags oskäliga avtalsvillkor det rör sig om. Vid en oskälighetsbedömning skall hänsyn tas till god sed, tvingande konsumentskyddande lagstiftning, allmänna tvingande rättsprinciper, dispositiv lag samt om obalans uppkommer till följd av en avtalsbestämmelse. Avtalsvillkoren får heller inte vara vilseledande eller otydligt utformade. De lagar som främst tillämpas på dessa marknader är AVLK, EkomL, KkL och KtjL. De två sistnämnda lagarna är dock inte direkt tillämpliga utan får tillämpas analogt. Vid ingången av arbetet misstänkte vi att det kunde vara svårt att hitta oskäliga avtalsvillkor i så stora företag som vi faktiskt valt, men i samtliga av de granskade standardavtalen förekom oskäliga avtalsvillkor. En gemensam nämnare för företagen är att deras avtal innehöll villkor som på ett eller annat sätt oskäligt begränsade konsumentens rätt till ersättning, s.k. ansvarsbegränsningsklausuler. Alla företagen har även villkorsändringsklausuler som bedömts som oskäliga eftersom de ger näringsidkaren ensidig rätt att ändra i villkoren avseende pris, tjänst eller dylikt. Villkor som föreskriver formkrav vid uppsägning, reklamation eller andra meddelanden återfanns i inte mindre än tre av de granskade företagen. Detta är anmärkningsvärt eftersom det med stöd av förarbetena till KkL och tidigare avgöranden har bedömts som oskäligt en längre tid. En del av de undersökta bolagen försöker utnyttja sig av force majeure-klausuler för att slippa prestera sin del av avtalet. Force majeure är omständigheter som det inte kan rådas över, exempelvis krig och naturkatastrofer. Många av företagen utvidgar innebörden till att innefatta även andra omständigheter som ligger inom kontrollsfären.

This study analyzes the evolution of the regime governing private international trade law from its inception in the eleventh century through to its modern formulation in the twentieth century. It also seeks to explain its development by focusing on three theories of international relations. The regime is defined in terms of its substantive and procedural dimensions. The nature and strength of the norms governing the substantive dimension (prices, liability for defective goods, allocation of transport costs, insurance, and financial and credit arrangements) and the procedural dimension (locus of regulation, methodology of rule creation, and dispute settlement) are analyzed over three historical phases. These three periods are the medieval period, from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, the early modern period, from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, and the modern period in the twentieth century. The regime norms are found to exhibit significant continuity over time, although there has been considerable variation in the rules. The strength of the regime has also varied over the three phases. Three theoretical perspectives (structural realism, functionalism, and sociological analysis) are evaluated for their relative ability to explain the origin, evolution, nature, and strength of the regime. Each perspective is found to offer important insights, but a synthesis of approaches is necessary to capture the complexity and richness of the regime's evolution. Structural realism does not account for the origin of the regime and is of limited assistance in explaining the strength of voluntary standards. It does, however, explain the influence that states' concerns for political/legal autonomy have had on the regime and offers a reasonably good account of the roles that the United States and the United Kingdom have played in the evolution of the regime. Sociological analysis assists in accounting for the origin and nature of the regime, but it does not provide a comprehensive theory of cooperation. Reference to the other approaches is required as a supplement to sociological analysis. Functionalism provides the best explanation of the origin and nature of the regime. However, it is unable to account for variations in the strength of the regime over the three historical periods. Reference to the influence of changing structures of political authority and to the ideas, knowledge, and values of the major commercial actors is necessary as a supplement to functional analysis.

The air transport sector is one that is particularly conducive to market dominance, and therefore to potential abuse thereof. Characterised, for several decades, by the omnipresence of barriers attributable to the preferential treatment enjoyed by undertakings under the sponsorship of their respective governments, European civil air transport has undergone progressive liberalisation over the years, under the auspices of the European institutions. / The object of the present thesis is to assess how the provisions of Article 82 of the E.C. Treaty have applied to the air transport sector prior and subsequent to deregulation, and how they remain indispensable, in the wake of emerging new factors that tend to keep the market of scheduled air services oligopolistic.

Contemporary trends in civil aviation show a noticeable tendency towards integration of national airline enterprises in many regions of the world. This attitude springs from the economic realities of air transport, the progress of which has been retarded generally by excessive competition and, in certain particular regions, also by such factors as shortages in financial resources and experienced personnel, inadequate equipment, and, at times, inherent difficulties in the operation of air services. [...]

The airline industry has been the subject of numerous studies both before and after deregulation. None of these, however have explicitly modelled the cost savings due to deregulation. This thesis develops a number of testable hypotheses about technological and managerial choice as they pertain to regulatory reform. The results of the tests show that the production technology the airlines developed post-deregulation is not unambiguously more efficient than the pre-deregulatoin technology. The unregulated output and network structure, however, appear to be more efficient than those utilized during regulation. A model is developed to decompose the change in cost due to deregulation. It is found that approximately 5% of the reduction in cost is the result of the new technology while 95% of the savings stems from the new output and network structures.

In the last decade, the European air transport industry has undergone a process in several stages of transition towards a single market. Liberalization has been closely linked to the effective application of the state aid rules of the EC Treaty. / In principle, direct aid to undertakings within the common market is not prohibited by the state aid rules in the Treaty. However, aid granted by Member States that distorts or threatens to distort competition by giving one airline an unfair advantage over its competitors, and in so far as it affects trade between Member States, is incompatible with the Treaty. Certain mandatory or discretionary exemptions may apply to aid to airlines providing that the measure fulfills the conditions and requirements as stated by the Treaty. The European Commission and the EFTA Surveillance Authority have a wide discretion in deciding whether or not certain aid measures fall within the stated exemptions. Where the market forces alone are not able to achieve the desired results or if they are only able to do so in a limited capacity, such exemptions may be warranted to the extent not contrary to the common interest. / A special mechanism is in place to ensure that state aid is properly scrutinized in the light of the demands of the Treaty and the EEA Agreement. The EC Commission or the EFTA Surveillance Authority must be notified of all aid measures in order to assess their compatibility with state aid rules.

Recognised as an excellent tool for competition in the current liberalised framework of international air transport, code-sharing is becoming a common practice, as an integral part of the activity of an airline, with obvious implications for both airlines and passengers. / This thesis presents two predominant legal implications of such a practice, involving two carriers for a single flight: the contracting carrier and the operating carrier. / First, this study aims at examining the relationship between users/passengers and code-share partners, more particularly identifying the practice as misleading due to the non-disclosure of the actual operator of the flight, which is magnified by the inaccuracy and shortcomings of computerised reservation systems (CRS). The regulatory framework in this regard is described and the legal obligation to disclose the identity of the actual carrier is given top priority. The delimitation of operational responsibilities will also be addressed (inadmissible passengers, overbooking and baggage concerns). The private agreement between the code-share partners will be given importance in ascertaining the liability issues. / Second, the current international liability regime is analysed with a view to consider the code-sharing scenario. The potential conflict between the different international legal regimes governing air carriers' liability is highlighted in order that this aspect be taken into account by the code-share partners in their contractual agreement. / Last but not least, some provisions of the new Montreal Convention of 28 May 1999 will be examined. A closer look will be given specifically to those provisions of Chapter V that are particularly applicable to a code-sharing situation.

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