Grazing lands in Eritrea are degraded due to decades of overstocking and consequent overgrazing. Since the rangelands are accessible to entire village communities, organisation and coordinated decision making regarding the management of these resources is not often achieved. Farmers are not motivated enough to make investments to improve a communally owned resource due to the prevailing common access grazing systems. A field survey was undertaken interviewing 12 farmers in the private access commercial and 80 farmers in the common access subsistence grazing using face to face interviews in the Barka and Arado cattle farming communities in four out of the six regions in Eritrea. Debub, Gash-Barka, S. Keih Bahri and Maekel regions were selected using stratified and simple random sampling methods. The regions were chosen based on various agroecological zones where the representatives of different grass species and the two most common cattle breeds in Eritrea (Arado and Barka) are found. The survey included the collection of data on village and household characteristics focusing on rangeland grazing management systems and additional sources of supplementary forage. The study uses several stages of analysis like principal component analysis accompanied by regression analysis together with descriptive statistics and ordination diagram. The commercial farmers addressed grazing constraints by investing in improved grazing through planting 258 ha per farmer of drought resistant seeds and 1767 vs. 8 cactus slices per farmer and covered 75% vs. 40% of forage requirements from grazing resources compared to the subsistence farmers, respectively, during 2002. These results were achieved because 78% of the commercial farmers adopted controlled stocking rates. In common access grazing, the costs of collective action to control cattle stocking rates are high, making imple mentation of stocking rate controls difficult. As a consequence, 65% of the subsistence farmers were forced to migrate their cattle looking for grazing forage in the dry season during the year. The outcomes of migration were evidenced by the results of severe overgrazing and degradation on the rangelands proximity to villages in Debub and Maekel regions and the populated area of Gash_Barka region. The increased number of animals resulting in high grazing pressure was the consequence of migration. Ten vs. six percent of mortality rates was reported for the subsistence systems compared to the commercial systems respectively. The lower results of milk yield, calving rates and off- take rate productivity indicated in the different stages of analysis for the subsistence farmers were the consequences of the lack of the adoption of controlled stocking rates primarily constrained by the migration. The Barka and Arado cattle farming systems are kept under common access grazing systems. Compared to the Arado cattle farming, the Barka cattle farming region had relatively better access to grazing forage. The better quality of grazing in this region is attributed to a naturally low stock density in the region. During 2002, the Barka cattle farming had 1087 vs. 721 Lit of milk yield, 63% vs. 53% of calving productivity and 9.3% vs. 10.9% of mortality rates than the Arado cattle farming regions respectively, due to access to a wider area of grazing lands and more labour inputs. The Barka cattle area farmers are agro pastoralists and usually focus on grazing dairy cattle farming than crop farming. They increased calving rate productivity and decreased mortality rates by increasing the proportion of lactating cows and decreasing the proportion of oxen compared to the Arado cattle farming. The Arado cattle farming had higher offtake rates and income from cattle sales compared to the Barka cattle farming region. The higher off- take rate, which is an index of percentage of cattle sold, for the Arado cattle was probably linked to the shortage of grazing forage and increased herding costs. The Barka and Arado cattle farmers had a shortage of quality and quantity crop residue winter forage during 2002. Farmers were dependent only on rain fed cropping. The application of crop rotation, fallow and chemical fertilizers were low to enhance soil nutrients. Out of the total crop residues forage produced, only 22% and 15% of legumes residue DM forage was produced for the Barka and Arado cattle farmers respectively. Agro- industrial and crop farming by-products supplementary feeds were also limited due to the shortage of feeds in the country during the year. In general, government intervention is important to bring institutional changes to promote the adoption of controlled stocking rates to alleviate the shortage of grazing forage. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The study was conducted in Eastern Cape Province to 1) investigate local people’s knowledge and perceptions on Euryops floribundus and 2) landscape distribution and effect of Euryops floribundus on herbaceous vegetation and soil. A total of 90 households who own livestock were randomly selected from the three communal areas, namely; Tsengiwe, Upper Mnxe and Manzimdaka for household surveys and group discussions. For landscape study, a total of about 5 ha of land were selected at Upper Mnxe communal area. Selection criteria included the presence of E. floribundus and different landscape gradients. A total of four 50mx50 plots were marked along the landscape gradients: Bottom, Middle, and Upper Slope and upland positions. To study the effect of E. floribundus invasion on the herbaceous vegetation and soil, a total of 4 ha communal land was selected in an accessible area which had a largely flat terrain. The area was selected to have adjacent sites with no invasion (< 5% shrub cover), light (5-15% shrub cover), moderate (>15-35) and heavy invasions (>35% shrub cover) of E. floribundus. The average household size in the study area was 6.8± 0.7. All people in the three communal areas unanimously ranked sheep as the most important species for their livelihood, but the ranking of cattle and goat varied among the communal areas. All elder groups agreed that Europs floribundus decreases both the quantity and quality of herbaceous forage as well as livestock production. Moreover, invaded patches create more bare areas which are responsible for the loss of top fertile soils and the formation of rills and gullies. The result showed that the total density of E. floribundus significantly increased from the topland (2301 plants ha-1) moving to the bottomland (4888 plants ha-1). Canopy cover was significantly lowest in the topland (17.9%), but the remaining gradients had similar cover. Grass dry matter yield was higher in the bottomlands and sloppy gradients than the toplands. Soil organic carbon was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the flat than the sloppy terrain. Soils from higher elevations (toplands and upper sloppy) had significantly higher N than the lower elevations (bottomlands and Middle sloppy). The lowest dry matter was observed at low invasion and non-invaded sites. Soil chemical properties were generally different from all density levels. In conclusion, E. floribundus encroachment was found to be major cause of decline in the peoples’ livelihood because as this reduces the vegetation diversity and livestock production, both of which are the major of their livelihoods.

This study was conducted to determine livestock production, rangeland management and the mineral levels of soils, grass and cattle blood serum in two communal areas (Kwezana and Dikidikana). A total of 77 farmers from both Kwezana and Dikidikana were interviewed to determine farmers’ perceptions. Soil and grass sampling was done at three sites in each communal area. Soil and grass samples were analysed for N, Ca, Mg, K, P, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and Bo. Three, two and half year old Nguni heifers were randomly selected from each communal area and blood samples were collected for the analysis of Ca, Mg, K, Cu and Fe. Soil, grass and blood samples were all collected in two seasons (winter and summer). The results of the study revealed that feed availability was the major constraint in livestock production as indicated by 83 percent of thefarmers at Kwezana and 88 percent at Dikidikana. At both villages less than 20 percent practiced supplementation and grazing management. From both villages, 83 percent of the farmers did not know the forage species preferred by their cattle. The second study revealed significant seasonal variations in soil N in both study areas while forage N exhibited seasonal variations (P<0.05) only at Dikidikana. Spatial variation (P<0.05) in soil Mn was apparent in both seasons at Dikidikana and in summer at Kwezana. At Dikidikana forage P varied (P<0.05) both seasonally and spatially. In both study areas, there was a positive correlation (P<0.05) between soil and forage levels of Cu and Zn. The blood serum of animals from both study areas had higher (P<0.05) K and Na in winter than in summer. Farmers do not understand the composition of their rangelands but are concerned about cattle nutrition during winter. Indeed the mineral status of soils, forages and Nguni cattle blood serum tend to vary not only seasonally but also spatially. There is need therefore to assist the farmers to understand these changes in order to find ways of managing the rangelands in a way that will manipulate both seasonal and spatial variations in soil nutrients for the benefit of the grazing livestock. Further research is required to determine the digestibility of the forages and the amount of energy available from these forages for the grazing livestock.

Information on milk production could be useful in designing strategies that would help to improve milk production in communal farming systems. This study was conducted to determine milk production and calf performance of Nguni and crossbreds under smallholder cattle production conditions. Four trials were conducted in the study. The objective of the first trial was to determine farmer perceptions on milk production and calf rearing in smallholder areas. Data were obtained from 218 smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire. Smallholder farmer sector is constituted by small scale commercial farmers and communal farmers. Small-scale commercial farmers in South Africa obtained farms from the government through land claims or they bought the farms. Their farming background is a communal type. Communal farmers are farmers that are sharing the same grazing land and animals are managed according to the experience of the owner. The findings in this study indicated that there were numerous constraints to milk production in smallholder areas. These included lack of technical expertise and poor veterinary support services. The farmers also indicated that calf performance was low. The second trial was conducted to determine if there were differences in calf performance, gastrointestinal parasites and nutritionally-related blood metabolites between Nguni and crossbred calves. Body weights and faecal samples were collected monthly until weaning at six months. The levels of total protein, albumin, globulins, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), glucose, cholesterol and minerals were determined monthly. Nguni calves had higher birth weights than crossbreds (P<0.05). Average daily gain and weaning weights of Nguni calves were greater than crossbred calves (P<0.05. Nguni calves had lower total protein at early age after birth (P<0.05). However, at weaning Nguni calves had higher total protein than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni calves had higher levels of glucose and NEFA concentrations than crossbred calves (P<0.05). In the third trial, milk utilisation patterns in smallholder areas of the Eastern Cape were assessed. Cattle owners (n = 130) were randomly selected in three different regions to determine milk consumption patterns, milk sales, prices and factors influencing these activities. The information was gathered using milk recording sheets, which were administered in February (early lactation) and June (late lactation) in 2009. Milk consumption per household was similar among the three districts (P>0.05). Milk was utilised as both fresh and sour. Fresh milk was utilised with tea/coffee and porridge. Excess fresh milk was utilised to feed pets (mostly cats and puppies). The puppies were fed on mostly whey, and, at times, on fresh milk. Sour milk was utilised to prepare of umvubo (a mixture of sour milk and scrambled porridge (umphokoqo) or a mixture of sour milk and bread). In some cases, excess milk was given to neighbours as a form of social investment and fame. The quality of milk from Nguni and crossbred cows was compared in the fourth trial. Milk samples were evaluated for quality in early (February), mid (April) and late (June) lactation in 2009. The essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids and fatty acids were determined. Nguni milk had higher amino acids and fatty acids concentration than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher arginine levels in the early and mid lactation periods compared to crossbred cows (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher methionine and threonine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). Methionine levels in Nguni were 0.15, 0.19 and 0.18 in early, mid and late lactation while crossbred had 0.05, 0.05 and 0.06 (g/100ml), respectively. There were significant interactions between lactation stage and genotype for lysine levels with Nguni milk having higher (P<0.05) lysine levels in the mid and late lactation periods. Nguni cows had higher tyrosine, glycine and proline levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In the early lactation, Nguni cows had higher serine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In mid lactation crossbred cows had higher serine levels than Nguni cows (P<0.05). There were significant differences between genotypes on fatty acid composition. Nguni milk had higher C12:0 levels than crossbreds (P<0.05). However, milk from crossbred cows had higher C14:0 levels than that for Nguni cows (P<0.05) and also had higher levels of C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids compared to Nguni cows. Crossbred milk had higher levels of C18n1n9t in early lactation period than Nguni and decreased as the stage of lactation progressed (P<0.05). In the early lactation, the levels of C18n1nC in Nguni milk were higher (P<0.05) than in late lactation. In the mid and late lactation, crossbred cows milk had higher C18n1nC levels than in early lactation (P<0.05). Lactation stage and genotype affected saturated fatty, monounsaturated fatty acids, cis-fatty acids and omega 3 (n-3) to omega 6 (n-6). In general, Nguni milk had higher mineral composition than crossbred milk (P<0.05). In conclusion, Nguni calves performed better than crossbred calves under communal rangelands. There is a need for crossing Nguni cows with dairy breeds in commercial dairying by smalhoder farmers as a strategy for improving both milk quality and quantity.

Thesis (MAgric (Agricultural Economics))—University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The natural resources mainly land, forests, and grazing lands in the Highlands ago-ecological zone of Eritrea are in a severely degraded state. And much of these common pool resources comprise commons i.e. they are managed under the common property rights management regimes. “The tragedy of the commons”, model suggests that all commons will inexorably suffer overexploitation and degradation. Contrary to this deterministic proposition, however, common property theory argues that the ‘tragedy’ is not due to inherent flaws in the common property rights management regimes, but because of institutional failure to control access to resources, and to make and enforce internal decisions for collective use. If the commons dilemma situation exists- i.e. ‘tragedy’, then the underlying problem is the degeneration of the existing common property rights resource management regime into open-access-like regime—a condition that can potentially trigger “the tragedy of the commons”. The question of how to deal with the problem of the commons is, therefore, primarily an issue of the existence of efficient institutions. The prevailing severe degradation of the common-pool resources in the Highlands of the country thus calls into question the robustness of the common property rights regimes that are in place for the governance of these resources. This thesis attempts to address this important problem specifically in relation to forest and grazing land common pool resources. A case study based on a single-case qualitative and exploratory-explanatory research design was carried out in a village located in the Highlands of the country. Data were collected through various forms of interviews (semi-structured interviews, in-depth interviews, key informants interviews, group discussions, and informal conversational interviews), direct observation, and document review. The data, gathered largely through using these separate lines of enquiry, were crosschecked to provide a triangulation of methods and to strengthen the validity and reliability of the data. The empirical findings reveal that existing common property rights management regimes for the management of the local common pool resources of the case study area have weakened over time. These findings indicate that, there is a significant incongruence between appropriation and provision rules. And this is manifested in terms of appropriation externalities and demand side and supply side provision externalities. This situation implies that existing local institutional arrangements i.e. common property rights management regimes in the case study area are not sufficiently robust to solve common pool resource appropriation and provision externalities. Though generalisation cannot be made beyond the case that was studied, there are several lessons that may be drawn from this field analysis, which may have valid implications for the natural resources management challenges and opportunities of the entire Highlands agoecological zone of the country.

A research journey involving people, cattle, and the landscape in rural Okhombe in the western part of the province of KwaZulu-Natal and lying at the foot of the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Mountain Range, South Africa, is the focus of this work. Using action research involving community members as co-researchers, it investigates why a rotational resting system for communal cattle grazing collapsed within six months of its launch. Despite having been designed in a participatory manner, the rotational resting system was not applied by cattle keepers. As a backdrop to the concern around the rotational resting system, it is necessary to understand how the current landscape of Okhombe was shaped. The history of the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Region over the past two hundred years was, therefore, explored. Four historical episodes were distinguished: economic expansion, nature conservation efforts, colonial and apartheid legislation, and encounters between people all left their imprint on the landscape. Digitized maps of aerial photographs of Okhombe, taken between 1945 and 2004, showed how Government intervention changed people’s multifunctional use of the landscape to concentrated settlements and cropping fields in the valley and cattle grazing on the mountain slopes. A survey in Enhlanokhombe, one of the sub-wards of Okhombe, further investigates how cattle keepers use the rangeland commons, and what determines these practices. People are keeping fewer cattle than in the past. A 24% decrease in cattle numbers was recorded between 2001 and 2008. Cattle keepers perceive stock theft as the most important threat. Yet, figures of stock losses showed that cattle disease resulting in death is an equally pressing problem. The decline in authority of traditional leaders and the view that herding is a family task have compounded the dominant management practice of continuous grazing by cattle. Rotational resting was found to be unsuited to the majority of cattle keepers who want to keep a close watch on their herds as they graze on the lower hill slopes. People in Okhombe disagreed about the condition of the range and what comprised appropriate grazing management. A community initiative has emerged to form cattle patrols to address stock theft. If successful, it may further enhance collective action. The concern with communal grazing management investigated in this research and in the Okhombe Landcare project, of which it was part, aimed to reverse land degradation and overgrazing. An analysis of digitized maps of Okhombe taken in the period between 1945 and 2004, however, showed that soil erosion did not increase rapidly as is commonly assumed by conventional rangeland scientists and extension staff. Rather, an increase in bare soil coincided with a period of drought. The focus of the Okhombe Landcare project on combatting soil erosion and rehabilitate degraded lands was underpinned by a particular interest in and need to conserve the uKhahlamba Drakensberg as a near-pristine wilderness landscape which provides marketable ecosystem goods and services. As such, cattle keeping in Okhombe can be described as being embedded in a social-ecological system comprising a series of nested, self-organizing subsystems which are interconnected. Sub-systems include the cattle production system, cattle grazing management practices, the wider ecosystem, and government policies and regulations. A spatial-temporal and systemic approach is proposed to make meaningful, policy-related decisions regarding communal rangeland management in the future. Such an approach would enable cattle keepers, other rangeland users, and outside stakeholders, such as extension workers and policy makers, to respond effectively to changes in the landscape by taking into consideration and balancing a complex set of biophysical, socio-political, and economic variables. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

The objective of the study was to determine sheep growth performance, fleece weights and wool quality characteristics in the sweet and sourveld communal rangelands of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Data were obtained in 80 ewes aged two to three years, selected in four ecologically different communities. Two communities (Roxeni and Tyabane) were in a sweetveld area and the other two communities (Luzi I and Luzi II) were in a sourveld area. The ewes from Tyabane were nondescript, whereas ewes from Roxeni, Luzi I and Luzi II were crossbred between Merinos and non-descript sheep. Selected ewes were monitored for live weight, body condition scoring and fleece weight during shearing. Wool samples were collected from each ewe and were analysed for fibre diameter, comfort factor, clean yield, wool crimps, staple length, staple strength and the Position of break. Sheep from Roxeni were heavier (P <0.05) (39.9 ± 1.1kg) than sheep from Tyabane (29.8 ± 1.1kg). Sheep from Tyabane had the lightest (P <0.05) fleece weight (1.0 ± 1.1kg) and sheep from Roxeni had the heaviest (3.1 ± 1.1kg). There were no significant differences (P ≥0.05) between body condition scores of sheep in Roxeni and the Luzi communities. The live weights of the two-year old ewes were similar (P ≥0.05) to the three-year old ewes’ live weight. However, the three year old ewes had higher (P <0.05) body condition scores than the two year old ewes. Two year old ewes also had lower (P <0.05) fleece weight than the three years old ewes. Wool from Roxeni, Luzi I and Luzi II had lower fibre diameter (P <0.05) than wool from Tyabane. Roxeni sheep had the highest clean yield (P <0.05) of wool, followed by Luzi I and Luzi II; Tyabane had lowest clean yield percentage of wool. Wool from sheep grazing on sweetveld had a higher (P <0.05) clean yield percentage (74.3 ± 0.7%) than those grazing on sourveld (71.7 ± 0.7%). There were higher staple mid-breaks (69.5 ± 5.2) and lower base-breaks (30.5 ± 5.2) in sweetveld (P <0.05) than in sourveld, 7.5 ± 5.2 and 92.5 ± 5.2 for mid-breaks and lower base-breaks, respectively. It was concluded that sheep raised in the sweetveld and bred with purebred Merino rams had higher performance than the ones reared in the sourveld. The young upgraded ewes had a higher wool quality than the older ewes raised on communal rangelands.

The objective of this study was to determine sheep production practices, constraints, flock dynamics, body condition and weight variation in two ecologically different resource-poor communal farming systems of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Mean sheep flock sizes per household were not significantly different between the two ecologically different areas (villages); Gaga (19.0±3.10) and Sompondo (18.3±3.10). Shortage of feed, disease and parasite were reported the most important constraints across the two villages. In both villages, sheep housing was poorly constructed using acacia brushwoods. Fewer farmers owned rams: the rams to ewes ratio for the two villages were 1:20, 1:19 for Gaga and Sompondo, respectively. The low ram: ewe ratios reported suggest that inbreeding might have been reducing productivity of their flocks. There was also uncontrolled breeding due to undefined and mating seasons. Gall sickness, heart water and footrot caused most of the sheep mortalities. Dohne Merinos were the common genotypes in the two villages. Total entrances for each flock were higher (p < 0.05) in hot-dry season and hot-wet season than in other seasons. Most of the entrances were lambs and were born in hot-dry season (September) and cool-dry season (June) for larger flocks (10.90 ± 3.02) and for small flocks (3.65 ± 3.02). High lamb mortalities were experienced in the post-rainy (April) and hot-wet (December) season. There was a significant interaction between season and flock size. Most of the sales occurred in the hot-wet season. Ecological area had significant effect on sheep production potential (p < 0.05) in both flock classes. The average sheep production efficiency (SPE) value for Gaga and Sompondo were 0.50 ± 0.116 and 0.50 ± 0.096 respectively. The SPE for large flock was higher (p < 0.05) by season and flock size. Large flocks had a higher (p < 0.05) SPE values and the SPE ranged from 1.11 ± 0.193 in April, a post-rainy season month to 1.55 ± 0.193 in December, a hot-wet season month. Lamb mortalities constituted the greater part of outflows. High lamb mortalities occurred in hot-wet (December), hot-dry (September) and post-rainy (April) seasons. There was a significant interaction between season and age of sheep on body weight of sheep. Highest (p < 0.05) body weights were recorded in the post-rainy and autumn season in both lambs and ewes. It is therefore very important to come up with affordable interventions which take into play ecological differences of the areas for improved nutritional status of sheep in communal areas which will lead to improved sheep productivity and the poor-resourced farmer human nutritional and livelihood.

No description available.