Thesis (Magister Institutionis Agrariae (Animal Production))-University of Pretoria, 2005. / Abstract in English. Includes bibliography. Available on the Internet via the World Wide Web.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The broad objective of this study was to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) markers associated with tick resistance in South African Nguni cattle and it was addressed by three specific objectives. The first objective was to assess tick load and prevalence in Nguni cattle in different agro-climatic regions of South Africa using tick count data collected monthly from 586 Nguni cattle reared under natural grazing conditions, over two years. Tick counts were assessed under natural challenge at ARC Roodeplaat and Loskop farms (warm climate), and Mukhuthali Nguni Community and University of Fort Hare farms (cool climate). The second objective was to estimate genetic parameters for tick counts in Nguni cattle. The third objective was to identify SNPs associated with tick resistance in Nguni cattle. Counts for each tick species were conducted on each animal in the herd once a month on different body locations, including the head, ears, neck, back, legs, belly, perineum and tail. Distribution of counts was determined using the PROC FREQ (SAS, 2002 - 2010). The tick counts were then analysed with the PROC GLM procedure using the two fixed effect models. Genetic parameters for log-transformed counts were estimated from univariate animal and sire models and bivariate sire models using the ASREML program. Animals were genotyped using Illumina BovineSNP50K assay. After Quality Control (call rate >90%, minor allele frequency > 0.02), 40 436 SNPs were retained for analysis. Association analysis for tick resistance was carried out using two approaches: genome-wide association (GWA) analysis using the GenABEL package and a Regional Heritability Mapping (RHM) analysis. Six tick species were identified: Amblyomma hebraeum (42%), Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (22%), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) spp. (16%), Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (11%), Hyalomma marginatum (5%) and Rhipicephalus simus (4%). Tick infestation was significantly affected by location, season, year, month of counting and age of the animal. Loskop farm, as the warmest location, had the highest tick counts and also showed the largest variation in tick loads. Higher tick counts were also observed in the hot-dry (September to November) and hot-wet (December to February) seasons compared to the other seasons. Amblyomma hebraeum was the dominant tick species across all four locations. Heritability estimates for tick count varied according to season and trait (body part or tick species) and ranged from 0.01±0.01 to 0.26±0.01. Genetic correlations ranged from -0.79±0.33 to 1.00±0.00 among counts for different body parts and 0.00±0.00 to 0.99±0.00 among tick species. Phenotypic correlations ranged from 0.06±0.01 to 0.72±0.01 among body parts and 0.01±0.02 to 0.44±0.01 for tick species. Whole body count was highly correlated to the perineum and the belly. These two traits appear to be the most suitable surrogates for whole body count. Several genomic regions of interest were identified for different traits by both the GWA and RHM approaches. Three genome-wide significant regions on chromosomes 7, 10 and 19 were identified for total tick count on the head, total A. hebraeum ticks and for total number of A. hebraeum in the perineum region. Suggestive significant regions were identified on chromosomes 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19 and 26 for several of the tick traits analysed. The GWA approach identified more genomic regions than did the RHM approach. These findings provide information that would be useful in developing strategies for genetic improvement of tick resistance through selection. The chromosome regions identified as harbouring quantitative trait loci (QTL) underlying variation in tick burden form the basis for further analyses to identify specific candidate genes related to cattle tick resistance and provide the potential for marker-assisted selection in Nguni. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om enkel nukleotied polimorfismes (ENPs) merkers te identifiseer wat verwant is aan bosluisweerstand in Suid-Afrikaanse Nguni beeste; dit is aangespreek deur drie doelwitte. Die eerste doelwit was om bosluislading en -voorkoms van bosluise in Nguni beeste in verskillende landbou-klimaatstreke van Suid-Afrika te bepaal deur die gebruik van bosluistelling data wat maandeliks van 586 Nguni beeste, grootgemaak op natuurlike weiding, oor 'n tydperk van twee jaar versamel was. Die tweede doelwit van die studie, was om die genetiese parameters te bepaal vir die bosluistellings in die Nguni beesras. Om hierdie doelwit aan te spreek, is vier verskillende datastelle onderskei in die bosluistelling data wat oor die twee jaar periode versamel was. Genetiese parameters is derhalwe beraam vir die telling van bosluise om sodoende die beste seisoen te identifiseer vir die insameling van bosluistelling data om ten einde strategieë te ontwikkel vir die genetiese seleksie vir vehoogde weerstand teen bosluise. Die derde doelwit was om ENP streke te identifiseer wat verband hou met bosluisweerstand in Nguni beeste. Verskillende bosluisspesies was getel op elke dier in die kudde een keer per maand op verskillende plekke op die liggaam, insluitend die kop, ore, nek, rug, bene, maag, perineum en stert. Bosluistelling data is ontleed met behulp van die SAS program om bosluislading variasie te bepaal. Genetiese parameter skattings vir log getransformeerde bosluistellings data was bereken vanaf twee-veranderlike vaar modelle en een-veranderlike dier- en vaar modelle met behulp van die ASREML program. Om ‘n genomiese wye assosiasie studie (GWAS) uit te voer, is DNS geïsoleer en genotipering gedoen met behulp van die Illumina BovineSNP50K toets. Na kwaliteit kontrole (oproep frekwensie>90%, klein alleelfrekwensie>0.02) is 40.436 ENPs behou vir ontleding. Assosiasie analise vir bosluisweerstand is uitgevoer met behulp twee benaderings, d.i. 'n genoom-wye assosiasie (GWA) analise met behulp van die GenABEL pakket en 'n plaaslike oorerflikheid karterings (POK) analise. Ses bosluisspesies is geïdentifiseer, d.i. Amblyomma hebraeum (42%), Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi (22%), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) spp. (16%), Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (11%), Hyalomma marginatum (5%) en Rhipicephalus simus (4%). Bosluis besmetting was beduidend beïnvloed deur die plek, seisoen, jaar, maand tel en ouderdom van die dier. Loskop plaas het die warmste weer ervaar en het die hoogste bosluis tellings en ook die grootste variasie in bosluislading gehad. Hoër bosluistellings is ook waargeneem in die warm droë (September tot November) en warm nat (Desember-Februarie) seisoene in vergelyking met die ander seisoene. Amblyomma hebraeum is geïdentifiseer as die mees dominante bosluisspesies oor al vier lokaliteite. Die voorkeur aanhegtingsarea vir die bosluise was onder die stert, perineum en maag areas op die liggaam. Die oorerflikheid beraming vir bosluistelling, soos beïnvloed deur die seisoen en eienskap (d.i. deel van die liggaam of bosluisspesies), het gewissel van 0.01±0.01 tot 0.26±0.01. Genetiese korrelasies het gewissel van -0.79±0.33 tot 1.04±0.01 vir bosluistellings op verskillende liggaamsdele en tussen 0.00±0.00 en 0.99±0.19 vir bosluisspesies. Fenotipiese korrelasies was laag tot matig en het gewissel van 0.06±0.01 tot 0.72±0.01 vir liggaamsdele en 0.01±0.02 to 0.44±0.01 vir bosluisspesies. Die datastel D wat September-Januarie bosluistellings bevat het die hoogste genetiese variasie aangedui. Heel liggaam bosluistellings was hoogs gekorreleerd met bosluistellings rondom die perineum en maag. Hierdie twee lokaliteite blyk die mees geskikte plaasvervanger vir die heel liggaam bosluistelling te wees. Verskeie genoom gebiede van belang is geïdentifiseer vir die verskillende eienskappe van beide die GWA en RHM benaderings. Drie genoom-wye beduidende streke (op chromosome 7, 10 en 19) is geïdentifiseer vir die totale bosluistelling op die kop, totale A. hebraeum bosluise en vir die totale aantal A. hebraeum in die perineum streek. Aanbevelende beduidende streke is geïdentifiseer op chromosome 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19 en 26 vir 'n paar van die bosluis eienskappe wat ontleed was. Die GWA benadering identifiseer meer genoom gebiede as die POK benadering. Hierdie bevindinge bied nuttige inligting vir die ontwikkeling van strategieë vir die genetiese verbetering van bosluisweerstand deur seleksie. Die chromosome streke hier geïdentifiseer is skuiling kwantitatiewe eienskap loki (KEL) vir die onderliggende variasie in bosluislading en vorm die basis vir verdere ontledings vir spesifieke kandidaat gene te identifiseer wat verband hou met die vee bosluisweerstand en bied die potensiaal vir merkerbemiddelde seleksie in Nguni.

Thesis (Ph.D. ( Animal breeding)) --University of Limpopo, 2012 / Refer to document / the Agriculture Research Council

Sanga-Nguni cattle have been present in Southern Africa for more than seven hundred years. They are the cattle traditionally owned by the Zulu people and have always been of great cultural and economic significance. They are distinguished by their hardiness and adaptability and are characterised by the great variety of their colours and patterns. This dissertation is a study of Sanga-Nguni cattle with special reference to colour pattern terminology and naming-practice in Zulu. More than three hundred terms in Zulu denote colour-pattern, horn-shape and type of beast. There are also a great number of terms for animals used for ritual purposes, especially those connected with the practice of ukulobola, in which cattle are exchanged during marriage negotiations. Many of these names, particularly those which refer to colour-pattern, are richly metaphorical, using imagery and analogy which connect the cattle with the birds, animals and plants that share their environment. Both archival and field sources have been employed to document as many of these names as possible and to classify them according to cultural significance, type, colour-pattern configuration and metaphorical content. Cattle names cannot be appreciated in isolation and in order to understand the complexity of the Zulu terminology, the significance of cattle in the cultural and economic life of the Zulu people as well as their biology and history has also been described. 'Cattle lore' concerning beliefs about cattle and perceptions of them in the cosmology of the Zulu people are recorded. The role of cattle in the oral tradition and cattle imagery in proverbs, poetry and tales as well as the praises of cattle themselves, have been explored in overview and provide insight into how the Zulu people perceive their herds. The dissertation is divided into four sections: i) Research setting ii) Pastoralism in Zulu society iii) Colour-pattern terminology and related naming-practice iv) perceptions of cattle and the role of cattle in the oral tradition. Although this is a primarily a language study, the subject of which is the documenting and analysis of the vast range of cattle terms found in Zulu, it is also a study of the role of cattle in Zulu society and their significance in the thought patterns of the people who own them and with whom they have lived in such close contact for so many centuries. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1996.

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of different dietary fibre levels on methane production and growth performance of Bonsmara and Nguni steers. Nine Bonsmara and nine Nguni male weaners aged 8 – 9 months were used for the study. On arrival, animals were fed Eragrostis curvula hay on ad libitum basis for the first 14 days as part of adaptation to the feedlot environment. Animals were gradually adapted to treatments to prevent metabolic disorders. The study was conducted as a 3 x 3 x 2 factorial experiment. Treatments were allocated in a completely randomised design. Data were submitted to analysis of variance (ANOVA). Student's t-LSD was calculated at the 5 % level (P < 0.05) to compare treatment means for significant effects. Feeding a diet that is low in crude fibre content had significantly increased (P < 0.05) growth performance in both breeds. Bonsmara steers had significantly higher growth performance (P < 0.0001) across all treatment diets compared to Nguni steers. High rumen total microbial count was observed in animals that received diets with low crude fibre. Reducing dietary crude fibre resulted in reduced methane production. Low dietary fibre showed low rumen archaea counts. There was a positive correlation between rumen pH and methane emission for both Bonsmara (R2 = 0.9105) and Nguni (R2 = 0.9517) steers. However, a negative correlation was observed between rumen total microbial count and feed conversion ratio for both Bonsmara (R2 = 0.8286) and Nguni (R2 = 0.7208) steers. The low rumen archaea counts were detected from the Bonsmara. Feeding diets with low fibre levels is recommended for improving growth performance and reducing methane production for Bonsmara and Nguni steers. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Ticks and tick borne-diseases (TBD) are major challenges to cattle production among smallholder farmers in the semiarid areas of South Africa. Nguni cattle have been reported to be resistant to ticks and TBD, however, the mechanisms responsible for the trait are not fully understood. The broad objective of this study was to determine the mechanisms of resistance to ticks in Nguni cattle reared in the semiarid areas of South Africa. Tick infestation levels, body condition scores (BCS), packed cell volumes (PCV) and the molecular prevalence of A. marginale were determined in Nguni (n = 70) and local crossbred (n = 79) cattle reared in the semiarid areas of South Africa. Relationships among skin thickness, hair length, coat score and tick counts were assessed in seven to nine month old Nguni (n = 12) and Bonsmara (n = 12) heifers. As a follow up, cutaneous hypersensitivity responses to unfed larval extracts (ULE) of the ticks Rhipicephalus decoloratus and Rhipicephalus microplus were examined in heifers to determine host immunity to the ticks. Tick counts and inflammatory cell infiltrates in skin biopsies from feeding sites of adult R. microplus ticks in nine-month-old Nguni and Bonsmara heifers were also evaluated. The molecular prevalence of A. marginale was similar in the Nguni (47.7 %) and local crossbred (52.3 %) cattle. Nguni cattle suffered less severe losses from and were more vi resilient to A. marginale infection than local crossbreds. Nguni heifers had lower coat scores, hair length and tick counts than the Bonsmara heifers. The relationship between tick counts and coat score was positive and linear in the Nguni (y = 1.90x – 0.40) and quadratic in Bonsmara (y = -7.98x2 + 12.74x - 3.12) heifers. Bonsmara cattle showed a more intense immediate reaction and no delayed hypersensitivity reaction to ULE of Rhipicephalus ticks. Nguni heifers presented a less intense immediate reaction and a delayed hypersensitivity reaction at 72 h post inoculation with ULE of Rhipicephalus ticks. Reactions to R. decoloratus ULE produced a more intense skin response at all time intervals in both breeds than that of R. microplus. Parasitized sites in Nguni heifers had higher (P < 0.05) counts of basophils, mast and mononuclear cells than those in the Bonsmara heifers. Conversely, parasitized sites in Bonsmara heifers had higher (P < 0.05) neutrophil and eosinophil counts than those in the Nguni heifers. Tick count was negatively correlated (P < 0.05) with basophil and mast cell counts. There was a positive correlation between eosinophil counts and tick counts in both breeds, and between tick counts and mononuclear cell counts in the Bonsmara breed. It was concluded that smooth and short coats, delayed type hypersensitivity and cutaneous basophil and mast cell infiltrations are responsible for increased tick resistance in the indigenous Nguni cattle breed of South Africa. / Ph.D. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2013.

The effects of month on body weight, body condition scores, internal parasite prevalence and on nutritionally related blood metabolites were studied in Angus, Bonsmara and Nguni steers raised on sweet veld. Pre-slaughter stress was also determined using catecholamines, cortisol, dopamine, packed cell volume and serum creatinine levels. The blood chemical constituents evaluated included glucose, cholesterol, total protein, creatinine, urea, globulin, albumin, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, aspartate amino transferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatinine kinase (CK). The Nguni steers maintained their body condition throughout the study period whereas Angus steers had the least body condition scores. Parasite levels were high during the rainy season and low during the dry season. The predominant internal parasites were Haemonchus (39.3 percent), Trichostrongylus (37.8 percent), Cooperia pectinita (25.5 percent), Fasciola gigantica (16.3 percent) and Ostertagia ostertagi (11.2 percent). The Nguni had the least parasite infestation levels and had high PCV levels. Nguni had higher levels of cholesterol and glucose (2.86 and 4mmol/l, respectively) than the other two breeds. Nguni and Bonsmara steers had higher (P<0.05) mineral levels. There were significant breed and month differences for glucose, cholesterol, creatinine, calcium, albumin, phosphorus, albumin-globulin ratio and ALP levels. Bonsmara was more susceptible to transport and pre-slaughter stress as it had the highest (P<0.05) levels of adrenalin (10.8nmol/mol), noradrenalin (9.7nmol/mol) and dopamine (14.8nmol/mol) levels, whereas the Nguni had the least levels of adrenalin (6.5nmol/mol), noradrenalin (4.6nmol/mol) and dopamine (4nmol/mol) levels. In conclusion, Nguni steers were better adapted to the local environmental conditions

The main objective of the study was to determine the effect of farm to abattoir environmental conditions and their subsequent effects on behavioural and physiological responses, as well as the quality of meat from Nguni (NG) and non-descript (ND) beef steers reared extensively on natural pastures. The forty 16 – 19 months old steers (20 ND and 20 NG) used in the current study were grouped together, medically treated, allowed three weeks acclimatizing period and were used in this trial over a four-month period. The weather and periodical variations influence on time budgets and body weights of these steers were determined. Furthermore, the effects of on-farm successive handling on behavioural scores and physiological responses of the same steers were determined. Later in the trial, some pre-slaughter effects on response-behaviour, bleed-out times and selected blood physiological responses were determined. Finally, the effect of genotype, muscle type, lairage duration, slaughter order and stress responsiveness on pH24, temperature, colour (L*, a*, b*, C, HA), thawing (TL) and cooking (CL) losses and Warner Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF) of the meat harvested from the same steers were determined. The daily time budgets of steers in natural pastures changed with temperature, humidity, observation week and time of the day. The grazing behaviour was observed throughout the observation days (> 37 percent); though it was reduced (26.9±2.64 percent) on days with higher temperatures and low humidity. Higher proportions of drinking (1.5±1.04 percent) and standing (20.8±4.63 percent) behaviours prolonged in such weather conditions, which were mostly during midday. The avoidance-related behaviour of the steers during handling varies, with the steers showing more avoidance and aggression in other weeks than some. These variations could however be traced back to the events of that particular day/time of handling. Only Weighing Box (WBS) and stepping (SS) scores differed (P<0.05) with genotype; with more calm NG steers (> 40 percent) and not kicking than the ND steers that were more vocal (20–60 percent) and kicking (> 5 percent). In addition, the weekly behavioural responses were reflected (P<0.05) in the measured cortisol, glucose and lactate. However, regardless of the prominent negative behaviour seen over time, the levels of the measured blood constituents continued to drop. Furthermore, steers of different genotypes displayed similar (P>0.05) response to the identical pre-slaughter conditions they were exposed to. However, steers that were Transport Group 1 (TG1) showed more avoidance (63.2 percent) pre-slaughter than those in TG2 (23.9 percent). Furthermore, all the steers that were in slaughter Group 2 (SG2) showed less avoidance behaviour than those in other groups. Vocalization was observed only for ND steers (5 percent), in TG1 and SG2. Some connections between the observed pre-slaughter activities and some behavioural and physiological changes of these steers were established; with TG1 and SG1 steers showing higher cortisol (140±14.50 and 175.9±17.24 nmol/L, respectively) and lactate (12.4±0.83 and 13.5±1.12 mmolL) levels than the other groups. Lastly, the muscle type, genotype, lairage duration, slaughter order and stress responsiveness have an effect on some meat quality characteristics of the two genotypes; with the L. dorsi muscle having highest WBSF (38.0±1.35N) than the Superficial pectoral muscle (Brisket muscle) (30.7±1.35N). Additionally, steers lairaged for a shorter time produced a L. dorsi with higher WBSF (41.6±2.34N) and a Brisket with lower TL (2.7±0.24 percent). It can therefore be concluded that the conditions and activities at the farm, during transportation, lairaging and slaughter at the abattoir have an influence on some behavioural and physiological changes and the quality of beef harvested from the Nguni and non-descript steers that were extensively-reared in natural pastures. However, the relationship patterns between these different conditions are not clear.

project. It did this by reviewing relevant literature in development communication. The review done showed that literature is replete with arguments critical of the dominant paradigm due to its top-down nature of communication. Scholars critical of dominant paradigm argue that participatory communication should be given a prominent role to ensure that stakeholders work in concert to realise the stated objectives of their development project. The study highlighted many contentious issues surrounding the nature and practices of participatory communication. It pointed out that the issues have played themselves out in literature in the form of different typologies of participatory practices, which were dealt with extensively in this study. The discussion of participatory communication in literature is also mindful of different models of communication and the space they occupy in participatory communication practices. In this study, there was a discussion of transactional communication models as depicted by Nair and White (1993:52) and Steinberg (1997:19). Both scholars emphasise that participatory communication will not achieve its stated purpose without mutual agreement of the parties in communication. They equally stress the recognition of the possible effects of some contextual factors which may have bearing on the prevailing nature of communication. A review of different communication tools used by participatory development communicator was given in the study. These different communication tools were discussed in view of how these tools can be used to advance participatory practice in a development project, especially with reference to the project examined in this study. Using qualitative research method, different and appropriate interview methods such as semi-structured, focus group and post-survey interviews were used to collect data from the respondents in this study. The analysis and discussion of the data revealed that different challenges on the ground could affect participatory communication practices in a development project. With regard to the project examined in this study, the analysis showed that there is a weak stakeholder relationship, especially stakeholders identified in this study as field officers. The study highlighted that stakeholders such as the agricultural extension officers and animal health technicians are not very active in the implementation process of the project. Some of the reasons pointed out is the fact that the secondary stakeholder such as the Provincial Department of Agricultural (PDoA) to which these field officers belong is not playing active role in ensuring that they complement the efforts of other field officers such as the IDC representatives. The second reason is the fact that the participatory focus of the project was not properly communicated to the beneficiaries. This also transpired in their inability to reflect participatory practice in their relationship with the beneficiaries and other stakeholders of the project. Other challenges, among others, as pointed out in the analysis showed that participatory communication practice requires expert personnel to be successful. In the case of the project examined, apart from the fact that there is shortage of manpower to handle the challenges mentioned in the study, there is no communication expert among the few active personnel in the field. The findings of this study showed that there was no clear role and identification of responsibilities let alone coordination of all actors involved in the project. Through the selected case study, this study has not only provided avenue to explore both theoretically and practically participatory communication, but has added to participatory communication discourse that there is no easy answer to challenges field officers encounter in practice. This is the reason the different participatory practices characterising nature of the project this study has investigated was given.

In the Xhosa culture, Nguni cattle have always been valued due to cultural rituals purpose but were not viewed from a development perspective. In fact, traditionally, in Xhosa society, cattle were used not only as primary sources of food such as milk, meat and other related secondary products, but in the performance of rituals. From milk one can get sour milk (amasi) which is a staple diet for both young ones and adults. Furthermore, butter, which was traditionally used for cosmetics purposes, is also derived from milk. Thus, the focus of this study is on the paradigm shift, as well as the role played by cattle in Xhosa cultural rituals and agriculture.