This thesis sought to examine the way people process morality-related issues while playing digital games, and to offer a possible explanation of how people are able to enjoy doing things in digital games that they would find morally reprehensible to do in the real world. Digital games are an important cultural phenomenon that seems to only be growing in popularity. At the same time, the often violent in-game behavior that people engage in while they are playing these games have caused some to be concerned that digital game players may emulate such behaviors in the real world. However, little has been done to discover why it is that these games are so enjoyable and desirable, which is what this thesis was written to explore. Using affective-disposition theory and anti-hero research as a baseline, the study attempts to adapt current media enjoyment theories so that they can be useful in describing digital game enjoyment. It uses the Digital Game Experience Model and the limited-capacity model in tandem with the media enjoyment literature and proposes that enjoyment theories may be applicable, but only in one of the six frames of digital game involvement represented in the DGEM - the narrative. It goes on to propose that people are able to enjoy the immoral by focusing on other frames of game involvement offered by the DGEM, such as the performative or tactical frames. To operationalize involvement within a specific frame of the digital game experience, the limited-capacity model's concept of cognitive resources was used. The idea was that these resources tend to be distributed evenly among the frames of involvement in digital games under normal circumstances. However, in the case of digital games that can potentially produce moral dissonance, it is suggested that people are able to maintain enjoyment in spite of the predictions of ADT because their cognitive resources are reallocated to areas of the gameplay experience in which morality is not a consideration - to frames of involvement other than the narrative frame. As secondary-task reaction-times are a proven way to measure cognitive resources allocated to specific constructs, some secondary tasks were designed to elicit processing of the narrative, to be administered while participants were actively engaged in playing a digital game. Thus, a between-subjects design was used that used secondary-reaction time tests to gauge cognitive resource allocation. Before playing the game, participants were briefed using either a morally justified or a morally unjustified narrative background (the manipulation) to contextualize their actions within the game. They were then asked to play a game for 10 minutes with the sole mission of killing as many people in the game as possible. In both conditions, the mission was the same - only the narrative reason for why they were killing the people was manipulated. Participants were also instructed prior to beginning that during the game they were to periodically respond to prompts from an adjacent computer which asked questions that were intended to elicit narrative processing. It was hypothesized that those in the unjustified condition would have allocated less cognitive resources to the narrative-frame, and thus would take longer to respond to these narrative-based tasks. The data did not yield any statistically significant results for the effect of the moral backdrop manipulation on the reaction times to the narrative-based tasks, and the non-significant results were in the opposite direction than that predicted. The one exception was for the first of the narrative-tasks to be administered, in which there was a relationship that approached significance, again in the opposite direction of predicted results. Enjoyment of the game was the same in both conditions, as was predicted. Another significant relationship was found between the actual response given to the narrative-tasks and the reaction times to the tasks, regardless of which condition the participants were in. These results and their potential implications are then discussed, and further avenues of research are suggested. / A Thesis submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2011. / October 28, 2011. / affective-disposition theory, digital games, enjoyment, limited-capacity model, morality / Includes bibliographical references. / Arthur Raney, Professor Directing Thesis; Ulla Bunz, Committee Member; Laura Arpan, Committee Member.

The primacy goal of this thesis was to develop a better understanding of the phenomenon of the human flesh search engine in China. The purpose of the study was to identify and analyze the characteristics of the human flesh search engine from the perspective of group dynamics and group communication. The human flesh search engine was identified here as a temporary online group in which people get together spontaneously to help solve problems mostly through searching for people and calling for justice. With the development of modern internet technology and society, the behavior of the human flesh search engine has become more frequent and is large in scale. Accurate comprehension of this phenomenon might help with directing and utilizing this behavior. Textual analysis was applied to this study to examine selected online postings, mainly in the forums of three major online communities. Qualitative research data consisted of online postings and media reports of the three human flesh search cases- the cat abuse case, the brand name cigarette case, and the most wicked stepmother case, in three online communities - Mop, Tianya and Sina Book Forum in China. These three human flesh search engine cases were analyzed using the concepts of leadership, division of labor and collaborative filtering. The findings indicate that the human flesh search engine accords with some characteristics of online groups, however, it has its own traits - No leaders are pre-assigned to the group, leaders gradually emerge and the first leader appears to be the initiator. Large numbers of people spontaneously collaborate in a short time, and the division of labor makes the group process more efficient. Collaborative filtering influences the integrity and authenticity of the information during the group process. The results of the study can hopefully help us to understand the behavior of the human flesh search engine and to predict and study other online social group and community in future study. / A Thesis submitted to the School of Communication and Information in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 27, 2012. / collaborative filtering, division of labor, human flesh search engine, leadership, online community / Includes bibliographical references. / Stephen D. McDowell, Professor Directing Thesis; Jennifer M. Proffitt, Committee Member; Ulla Bunz, Committee Member.

This study focuses on the public relations professionals and their motivations for becoming self-employed. Based on previous research on this group of practitioners and studies in the area of entrepreneurship, it was hypothesized that decision-making process is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that is likely to be affected by variety of motivations and demographic variables. Relying on prior research it was hypothesized that motivations associated with autonomy, financial benefits, potential for greater ability for family-time, as well as the internal locus of control would predict individual odds to become self-employed. The study relied on the expectancy-value theory as its framework. This study replicates and builds on initial studies on independent public relations professionals and goes far beyond what has been studied up to this point. This study replicated the studies and extended them by analyzing the complex nature of decision making in a multivariate context. Thus, the results offer support for development of future studies on public relations practitioners and their motivations for becoming self-employed. It is important to note that the results of this dissertation are relevant beyond the field of public relations. First, findings suggest further support for complexity of decision-making process associated with becoming self-employed. Findings are in line with research on entrepreneurial theory and motivations. Beyond demographic factors such as sex, marital status and age or tenure affecting individual's propensity for becoming self-employed, higher order motivations were found to affect the decision making process. These motivations include greater autonomy, financial benefits and ability to spend more time with a family after becoming independent. The most prominent effect, however, was found for tenure. Finally, this study offers some key insights for the operationalization of expectancy-value theory and suggests approaches to statistical analysis of studies relying on this theory. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 20, 2012. / Entrepreneurial Motivations, Public Relations, Self-Employment / Includes bibliographical references. / Jay Rayburn, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joseph Cronin, University Representative; Gary R. Heald, Committee Member; Stephen McDowell, Committee Member.

As social media have become a ubiquitous part of our daily life, questions remained to be answered by scholars who study social movements and new communication technology. This dissertation explores the role and impact of Facebook as it pertains to the food movement in the United States. Applying three main theories derived from communication and sociology, this manuscript explores the usage of Facebook among ordinary citizens who take leadership roles to make a social difference at the policy level. Taking as a case study the Right to Know Rally, through a qualitative content analysis of all posts of the 42 Facebook pages of the Right to Know Rally, as well as interviews with selected participants of the event, this dissertation attempts to answer three main questions. First, through the lens of Habermas's concept of the public sphere this manuscript addresses whether Facebook reinforces or challenge the notion of the public sphere. Second, Castells's work of network analysis serves to understand how virtual relations affect a movement both online and offline. Third, applying leadership theories, this study explores how leadership is manifested on Facebook and who takes the lead both online and offline. Last chapter explores a question that has been at the center of many debates among scholars who are studying new communication technology. Does Facebook offer a bridge to civic engagement offline? I argued that while Facebook poses problems for the privacy of an individual, its power lies in the functionality of reaching heterogeneous networks made out of individuals who might or might not being part of the Right to Know Rally movement. In lack of physical spaces to express freedom of speech, Facebook reinforces Habermas's notion of the public sphere, in which individuals from the comfort of their home can pitch in, taking at times leading roles. In this way new leaders emerge. These people do not have to possess a priori experience in social movements, but they do need to be active participants of the web and offline. In terms of the impact of Facebook on online settings, while this study cannot generalize its finding, it was blatant during the analysis that the social medium has an effect on offline mobilization. More specifically, Facebook expands social networks outside the realm of the web, through the function of event planning. These event attracted bystanders who were encouraged to visit the web to find further information and take action. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2012. / October 12, 2012. / Facebook, GMOs, social media, Social movements, social networks / Includes bibliographical references. / Andrew Opel, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jennifer Proffitt, Committee Member; Jeanette Castillo, Committee Member.

Using a political economic perspective, this thesis examines how organized labor is covered in the corporate-owned media by analyzing coverage of the 2011 NBA lockout. Based on scholarly research by Schmidt (1993), Bruno (2008) and others, it is clear that media coverage of organized labor is declining in both quantity and quality. The little coverage that exists tends to focus on labor-management conflict, with the high-profile world of sport attracting greater media attention than other industries. This conflict-oriented coverage takes on several distinct characteristics, as identified by scholars Martin (2004), Parenti (1993) and Puette (1992). Among these trends are greater scrutiny of employee salaries rather than those of management, coverage that emphasizes management `offers' rather than union givebacks, and the use of a third-party, `consumerist' perspective that allows the media to appear objective while espousing management viewpoints. Newspaper articles and television transcripts concerning the NBA lockout were examined, including The New York Times, The Associated Press, The Wall Street Journal, ABC News, CBS News, and PBS. The thesis finds that lockout coverage in the media outlets analyzed was largely consistent with the literature, with some exceptions. In particular, the Times and the AP offered in-depth coverage of player concessions. In addition, publicly-owned PBS provided greater context and criticism of owner positions than any of the privately-owned media outlets. / A Thesis submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 22, 2012. / Corporations, Journalism, Labor, Media, Political economy, Sports / Includes bibliographical references. / Jennifer M. Proffitt, Professor Directing Thesis; Davis W. Houck, Committee Member; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member.

In spite of strong maternal and child health initiatives in India, the maternal and infant mortality rates remain unacceptably high. There is no single solution to address this issue; however, health information provided to the mothers can benefit both the mother and her developing fetus. Therefore it is important to study the patterns in information-seeking among pregnant women. This dissertation examined information seeking behavior among pregnant women in a rural region of New Delhi, India using a mixed methods approach. The study was informed by the Wilson Model that predicts information seeking using information needs, perceived barriers, self-efficacy, and perceived risk. The model was also extended to include knowledge and direct experience. To conduct the study, a variant of the sequential mixed-method design was used, wherein the initial qualitative phase informed the design of a culturally anchored questionnaire. A combination of focus groups and key informant interviews were conducted, in order to generate items related to the constructs of the extended Wilson Model. Thematic analyses of the interviews helped creating items pertaining to information needs, perceived barriers, self-efficacy, perceived risk, knowledge, and direct experience. Lay experts as well as experienced social scientists were also asked to evaluate the items in order to ascertain domain adequacy and face validity. Following their suggestions, the questionnaire was revised to form a culturally appropriate tool for the study group. In the second phase, data were collected from 165 pregnant women attending ante-natal clinics at two government hospitals. Data were analyzed using the structural equation modeling approach that allows for hypotheses testing as well as assessing model fit. This method also allows for testing direct and indirect effects. Information needs, perceived barriers, knowledge, and direct experience were found to be significant predictors of pregnancy related information-seeking. Perceived barriers were also found to predict self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and perceived risk did not predict pregnancy-related information-seeking. Methodological issues could be one reason why self-efficacy and perceived risk did not predict information-seeking. Additionally, the high confidence levels of women in terms of obtaining information may in fact delay their information seeking until complications arise. The study also points out to a need for increasing low-come, rural women's awareness through innovative means. The need for proper counseling as an integral component of antenatal care is also evident from the study. The qualitative phase of the study provides evidence towards the complexity of the focus group discussion. Therefore, care must be taken while implementing and interpreting focus groups. Future research should involve key-individuals like the husband or mother-in-law in the information-seeking process of the pregnant woman. Additionally, information-seeking could be treated as a mediator variable in order to study how women process the information. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 24, 2013. / Information-seeking, maternal health, mixed-methods, pregnancy / Includes bibliographical references. / Gary Heald, Professor Directing Dissertation; Isaac W. Eberstein, University Representative; Laura Arpan, Committee Member; John K. Mayo, Committee Member; Stephen McDowell, Committee Member.

This dissertation dissects the current state of sport in society as manifested through an increasing number of material manifestations created in the late capitalist moment. These objects, namely sports memorabilia and other assorted products, have left an indelible mark on culture by virtue of their attempts to encapsulate presence, dictate levels of fandom, and commemorate collective public memory. In all, the dissertation uses four case studies to examine these consequences, beginning with the emplacement of a private memorabilia collection in a professional baseball stadium, a situation beset by the personal nature of collection and the team's goal to maximize capital in the new stadium. The next case study explores the commodification of sports memorabilia, epitomized by huge profits realized from the sale of authentic, game-used dirt, used in an attempt to re-establish industry credibility in the wake of massive fraud and draw in consumers at a variety of price points. The third case study is a rhetorical investigation of the material significance of retro ' or throwback ' jerseys, a fashion trend from the early 21st century that has become a standard part of the commercial offerings of professional sports teams. Concentrating on one professional franchise's attempt to resurrect its history in material form, this chapter argues that while some jerseys retain the symbolic power of the teams and players they channel, others fall short as a result of contextual factors that surround the commemoration. Finally, the last case study is focuses on attempts by sports fans to create their own merchandise, thus activating their individual creativities and operating against hypermasculine gender stereotypes in sports. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2011. / May 11, 2011. / Includes bibliographical references. / Davis W. Houck, Professor Directing Dissertation; Leigh H. Edwards, University Representative; Jennifer Proffitt, Committee Member; Arthur A. Raney, Committee Member; Michael D. Giardina, Committee Member.

While the maternal and infant health benefits of breastfeeding are greatly supported by research, breastfeeding rates in the United States remain sub-optimal. Increasing the prevalence of infant breastfeeding is an important public health goal as the maintenance of maternal and infant health is one of society's best investments. Applying the Protection Motivation Theory, this study seeks to identify conditions that maximize the desired impact of health information on intentions to partake in breastfeeding. Research has shown that the way a message is framed can differentially affect an individual's judgments, decisions, and behaviors. This study investigates whether gain- and loss-framed messages vary in their impact on behavioral intentions to breastfeed among female college students. Utilizing a survey with a field-experimental manipulation, this study examines the effects of message framing on intentions to breastfeed, considering threat appraisal variables, coping appraisal variables, as well as negative affect and information acceptance as moderating variables. The survey contains measures of vulnerability, severity, maladaptive rewards, self-efficacy, response efficacy and cost, negative affect, and information acceptance. Multiple regression analyses were employed to test the relationships identified by ten hypotheses. The findings of this study show loss-framed messages are significantly positively related to threat appraisals, as suggested in the literature. However, this study was unable to produce support for the use of gain-framed messages in predicting breastfeeding intentions. This study proposed the addition of negative affect and information acceptance to the traditional PMT model. Threat appraisals were found to be significantly positively related to negative affect, and coping appraisals were found to be significantly positively related to information acceptance. Both threat and coping appraisals were found to significantly positively predict breastfeeding intentions. When controlling for race and breastfeeding experience, some findings varied, indicating a need for breastfeeding interventions tailored to women's race and level of experience. These findings should be taken into consideration by health professionals attempting to develop materials that are meant to increase breastfeeding intentions. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2013. / June 20, 2013. / behavioral intentions, breastfeeding, information acceptance, message framing, negative affect, protection motivation theory / Includes bibliographical references. / Gary Heald, Professor Directing Dissertation; Isaac Eberstein, University Representative; John Mayo, Committee Member; Stephen McDowell, Committee Member.

This thesis examines the legal arguments of the U.S. government and Kim Dotcom in the shutdown of MegaUpload, which was the biggest file-hosting site. In January 2012, the U.S. government shut down MegaUpload and alleged its owner, Kim Dotcom, and several executives for criminal copyright infringement. However, Kim Dotcom argued that his business was legal and qualified for The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) safe harbors. Two arguments seem to conflict in the shutdown of MegaUpload. This thesis firstly review legal concepts related to secondary liability for third-party infringement and found that there are two different approaches to interpret third-party infringement. After the creation of the DMCA, the third-party infringement is still evolving. Therefore, some inconsistencies were found between the DMCA and the doctrine of third-party infringement. In Grokster, the Court developed a new doctrine of third-party infringement, inducement. According to this doctrine, online service providers who purposefully encourage and abet infringement should be held liable even though they do not have specific knowledge of infringing activity. In the analysis of the legal arguments in the shutdown of MegaUpload, this thesis found that the U.S. government tended to interpret third-party infringement in a relatively expansive way and contended that a service provider should be held liable for any infringement they are capable of controlling it. In this case, the U.S. government even went further than its precedents and alleged the MegaUpload should be held for criminal copyright infringement rather than civil copyright infringement. However, Kim Dotcom argued that MegaUpload should qualify for the DMCA safe harbors and therefore he and his business should not be held liable. This case pointed out at least three important questions. First of all, what is the priority of applying the DMCA and third-party infringement; second, how to apply criminal copyright infringement and inducement to a service provider; and third, how to find a balance between exclusive rights of copyright holders and the innovation of online services. In conclusion, the thesis suggests that future research can still pay attention to the development of this case. Also, Kim Dotcom has started a new Mega service, which is operated as a cloud service. Future research can also focus on the liability on cloud storage service providers / A Thesis submitted to the School of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 29, 2013. / MegaUpload, secondary liability, third-party infringement / Includes bibliographical references. / Stephen McDowell, Professor Directing Thesis; Jennifer Proffitt, Committee Member; Andrew Opel, Committee Member.

Cancer can be one of the most serious diseases that can result in a costly reduction in the quality of life. Among a number of cancer risk factors, tobacco use has been identified as the leading preventable cause of deaths. Prior research has suggested that cancer information seeking may be a pre-step to adopt health protective behaviors that can prevent the development of cancer. However, little is known about factors that lead cancer information seeking behaviors of smokers, former smokers and nonsmokers. The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, it aimed to offer a model by merging constructs that have been shown to be effective to predict health preventive behaviors, especially cancer information seeking behaviors, with the more recent factors. Second, it examined cancer information seeking behaviors, proposed by the model, comparing smokers, former smokers and nonsmokers. This study used the first cycle of the Health Information National Trends Survey 4 data set collected in 2012. Path analyses were employed to test the proposed relationships among risk perception, perceived ambiguity, cancer worry, self-efficacy, response efficacy, and cancer information seeking for sub-groups, segmented by smoking status. Results from the path analysis featuring a multiple group comparison indicated that the proposed model did not fit the data well. Thus, separate path analyses were subsequently conducted for smokers, former smokers and nonsmokers. One of the main findings was the roles of risk perception and cancer worry in cancer information seeking. Regardless of smoking status, risk perception was positively related to cancer worry, and then, cancer worry was positively related to cancer information seeking. In addition, perceived ambiguity affected cancer information seeking via response efficacy and cancer worry. Greater perceived ambiguity was associated with less response efficacy for all three groups and with greater cancer worry for former smokers and nonsmokers. Then, subsequently, response efficacy was positively associated with cancer information seeking for former smokers and nonsmokers. Finally, although not hypothesized, self-efficacy was negatively associated with risk perception for smokers and former smokers. The findings of this study provide a better understanding of cancer information seeking behaviors of smokers, former smokers and nonsmokers. Additionally, they suggest that health communication professionals should design messages to increase risk perception and cancer worry as well as to decrease perceived ambiguity, which may in turn help lead effective cancer prevention efforts. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 29, 2013. / Cancer, Cancer Information Seeking, Smoking / Includes bibliographical references. / Gary Heald, Professor Directing Dissertation; Isaac W. Eberstein, University Representative; Stephen McDowell, Committee Member; Juliann Cortese, Committee Member; Jonathan Adams, Committee Member.