Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Engineering: Mechanical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2015. / Vacuum Infusion (VI) and Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) are liquid composite moulding processes used in the manufacture of components from composite materials. The composite material in this case consists of a resin matrix combined with fibre reinforcement. In both moulding processes, a dry reinforcement preform is placed in the mould cavity and a liquid resin is introduced, driven by a pressure differential. Two rigid surfaces are used in RTM to create a fixed mould cavity. In contrast VI implements only one rigid surface and a flexible membrane or vacuum bag to form a non rigid cavity. The flexible cavity in VI influences and differentiates resin flow behaviour from that of RTM. Modelling resin flow enables the velocity, pressure and flow direction to be predicted. Resin flow in the RTM process is understood and modelled using Darcy’s law. However, flow in the VI process is not accurately modelled due to the added complexity introduced as a result of the flexible cavity. In the present work a novel approach was developed to investigate fluid flow in both processes. A unique experimental setup and testing procedure allowed for the direct comparison of fluid flow in RTM and VI. Identical flow parameters, conditions and preform construction were used in the assessment. The comparison isolated the effect of preform thickness variation as a differentiating factor influencing flow. From the experimentation, material behaviour was characterised and used to evaluate flow models for RTM and in particular VI. The model solutions were compared back to corresponding experiments. The pressure distribution behind the flow front, fill time and thickness behaviours were assessed. The pressure distribution / profiles behind the flow front of both VI and RTM were noted to be scalable with flow front progression. The profiles were curved in the VI experiments and linear in the RTM case. All VI models evaluated including the non accumulation based model accurately predicted the pressure distribution and consequently thickness variations in the VI tests. Fill times of the VI experiments were longer than that of the equivalent RTM tests. This behaviour is in contrast to previously interpreted fill time behaviour for the VI process based on VI models. It was also noted that the VI fill times were not only proportional to the square of the fill length, as in the RTM case, but also proportional to the square of the mass present. In addition, no significant accumulation was noted in the VI experiments. / D

Spray forming with eo-injection of a solid particulate phase to form a metal-metal composite has been studied as a new route for manufacture. Two Al-based matrices were investigated: AI-12Si for testing the feasibility of the new manufacturing route and Al-4Cu for providing better mechanical performance. For both composite types, Ti was chosen as the particulate phase and the processing-microstructure-property relationships then studied. At Peak Werkstoff GmbH, Germany 12 wt%Ti particles were eo-injected into an atomised Al alloy droplet spray and eo-deposited to form a rv300 kg billet. The microstructure comprised refined equiaxed a-AI grains (rv5fLm), spherical Si particles (rv5fLm) and uniformly distributed Ti particles (rv80fLm). Sections of the billet were extruded under a range of conditions into long strips 20mm wide and 6mm, 2.5mm and 1mm thickness. At high strains, the Ti particles were deformed into continuous fibres of a few microns in thickness. Accumulative roll bonding was then performed to higher total strains, while maintaining a constant cross-section, reducing the Ti fibres to sub-micron thickness. The fibres were studied by extraction after selective dissolution of the a-AI matrix. There was no interfacial reaction between a-AI and Ti or any measurable oxide formation, thus providing encouragement for the manufacture of metal-metal composites by eo-spray forming. A powder injection pump was successfully integrated and commissioned on the spray forming facility at Oxford University. The pump was calibrated to optimise powder flow rates. Three AI-4Cu+ Ti composite billets were processed with each containing Ti powder with a different processing history. Up to 20vol%Ti was successfully incorporated, however due to the cooling effect from powder injection, porosity was significant. The quenching effect provided a finer AI-4Cu grain structure in the region of Ti injection, and also promoted precipitation of O'-AbCu precipitates. A Ti/ Al-4Cu interfacial reaction was more prominent in the billet spray formed at 850°C than those spray formed at 750°C. Angular Ti processed by a hydride-dehydride route had better deformation characteristics than spherical gas atomised Ti. Deformation processing by extrusion and rolling was investigated for Al-4Cu+20vol%Ti using SEM, EBSD and FIB. After extrusion to a strain of 5, the composite contained elongated reinforcing fibres characteristic of metal-metal composites. The microstructure studied by EBSD revealed equiaxed polygonal Al-4Cu matrix grains. Rolling was not as efficient as extrusion in producing elongated Ti fibres and was attributed to a lower deformation processing temperature. The rolled composites consisted of elongated Al-4Cu grains 1-5J1m in thickness. An UTS of 339MPa at a strain of 3 was attributed to texture strengthening in the Q- AI.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of science in Engineering. Johannesburg, 1992. / This project involves the comparison of different failure criteria with experimental results for fibre composite materials, and investigates the usefulness of acoustic emission in composite testing. Three sets of specimens were tested to failure in tension. The specimens had various ply orientations and were tested using acoustic emission to determine ply failures. Carbon and glass fibre reinforced epoxy pre-impregnated specimens were used. The testing machine was an ESH testing machine, and a physical Acoustics corporation computer and data acquisition unit were used to record data from a piezo-electric sensor. Suitable failure criteria should be chosen on the basis of ply orientation and material type (eg fibre stiffness), a combination of criteria being used if necessary. Acoustic emission was successfully used to detect ply failure in multi-layered laminates. / AC2017

Les matériaux composites connaissent un intérêt croissant dans la majorité des secteurs de l’industrie en raison de leur faible poids propre et de leurs propriétés physico-chimiques intéressantes. Cependant, l’utilisation de ces matériaux a nécessité de conduire en parallèle des réflexions sur leur assemblage avec d’autres matériaux qui a donné naissance au développement de la technologie d’assemblage par collage structural. Cette technique qui permet de pouvoir assembler des matériaux de nature différente en limitant par exemple l’augmentation du poids propre de la structure n’est pas encore totalement maîtrisée. Pour cela, des développements sur la qualification des efforts d’adhésion ou sur la compréhension de la durabilité sont encore nécessaires. Cette thèse aborde la problématique de l’optimisation des assemblages collés et vise en particulier à étudier de manière plus précise l’utilisation de la courbure afin d’optimiser le transfert des efforts au sein du joint de colle. Deux types de colle, présentant l’une un comportement élastique fragile et l’autre un comportement élastoplastique ont été étudiés dans ce travail sur les différents volets analytique, numérique, et, expérimental. Il s’est avéré que la plasticité de l’adhésif semble améliorer la capacité de résistance du joint collé et sera alors un paramètre essentiel dans leur optimisation. Une étude de la géométrie courbe des joints collés acier/composite a été ensuite menée et il ressort de cette étude que cette géométrie est efficace pour augmenter la résistance d'un joint collé à la rupture. De plus, afin d’approfondir les connaissances sur le comportement mécanique du joint collé courbe, et en absence d’étude bibliographique suffisante sur ce type de collage, nous avons ensuite eu recours à la modélisation par la méthode des zones cohésives pour pouvoir aussi valider l’atout de la géométrie courbe par rapport à la géométrie plane. Ce travail s’est enfin intéressé à la durabilité mécanique de cette solution en abordant la thématique de la fatigue ; même si des investigations supplémentaires seront nécessaires, nous avons d’ores et déjà constaté que l’optimisation du joint par l’utilisation d’une colle élastoplastique et une géométrie courbe permet d’améliorer le comportement en fatigue de l’assemblage collé / Composite materials are gaining increasing interest in most of the industry sectors due to their low self-weight and their interesting physico-chemical properties. However, the use of these materials called for parallel reflections on their assembly with other materials which gave rise to the development of the structural bonding technology. This technique which allows to assemble materials of different natures by limiting, for example, the increase in the self-weight of the structure, is not fully mastered yet. For this purpose, further development on the qualification of the adhesion forces or on the understanding of durability are still necessary. This thesis addresses the problem of the optimization of adhesive bonded joints and aims in particular to study, more precisely, the use of the curvature in order to optimize the transfer of forces within the bonded joint. Two types of adhesive, one exhibiting a fragile elastic behavior and the other an elastoplastic behavior, have been studied in this work on the various analytical, numerical, and experimental aspects. We presumed that the plasticity of the adhesive appears to improve the strength of the bonded joints and; hence, shall be considered as an essential parameter in their optimization. A study of the curved geometry of the steel / composite bonded joints was then carried out, where it emerged that this geometry was effective in increasing the strength of the bonded joint and its ultimate capacity. Moreover, in order to extend the knowledge on the mechanical behavior of the curved bonded joints, and in the absence of sufficient bibliographical references on this type of bonding, we then resorted to the modeling by using the cohesive zone method to also validate the advantage of the curved geometry with respect to the plane geometry. This work finally focuses on the mechanical durability of this solution by addressing the fatigue thematic; even if additional investigations are needed, we have already found that the optimization of the joint by the use of an elastoplastic adhesive, and a curved geometry can improve the fatigue behavior of the adhesive bonded joints

A dual inclusion strategy for textile polymers has been investigated to increase elastic energy storage capacity of fibers used in high velocity impact applications. Commercial fibers such as Spectra and Dyneema are made from ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). Dynamic elastic energy of these fibers is still low therefore limiting their wholesale application without a secondary metallic or ceramic component. The idea in this investigation is to develop methodologies so that the elastic energy of polyethylene based fibers can be increased by several folds. This would allow manufacturing of an all-fabric system for high impact applications. The dual inclusion consists of a polymer phase and a nanoscale inorganic phase to polyethylene. The polymer phase was nylon-6 and the inorganic phase was carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Nylon-6 was blended as a minor phase into UHMWPE and was chosen because of its large fracture strain - almost one order higher than that of UHMWPE. On the other hand, CNTs with their very high strength, modulus, and aspect ratio, contributed to sharing of load and sliding of polymer interfaces as they aligned during extrusion and strain hardening processes. A solution spinning process was developed to produce UHMWPE filaments reinforced with CNTs and nylon-6. The procedure involved dispersing of CNTs into paraffin oil through sonication followed by dissolving polymers into paraffin-CNT solution using a homogenizer. The admixture was fed into a single screw extruder for melt mixing and extrusion through an orifice. The extrudate was rinsed via a hexane bath, stabilized through a heater, and then drawn into a filament winder with controlled stretching. In the next step, the as produced filaments were strain-hardened through repeated loading unloading cycles under tension. / Neat and reinforced filaments were characterized through DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry), XRD (X-ray Diffraction), Raman Spectroscopy, SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope), and mechanical tests. Phenomenal improvement in properties was found; modulus, strength, fracture strain, and elastic energy increased by 219%, 100%, 107% and 88%, respectively before strain hardening. Once strain hardened the strength, modulus and elastic energy increased by almost one order of magnitude. Source of these improvements were traced to increase in crystallinity and rate of crystallization, formation of microdroplets as a minor phase, sliding between minor and major phases, coating of nanotubes with polymer and alignment of nanotubes. / by Mujibur Rahman Khan. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

A novel approach has been introduced in making flexible armor composites. Armor composites are usually made by reinforcing Kevlar fabric into the mixture of a polymer and nanoscale particles. The current procedure deviates from the traditional shear thickening fluid (STF) route and instead uses silane (amino-propyl-trimethoxy silane) as the base polymer. In addition, a cross-linking fixative such as Glutaraldehyde (Gluta) is added to the polymer to create bridges between distant pairs of amine groups present in Kevlar and silated nanoparticles. Water, silane, nanoparticles and Gluta are mixed using a homogenizer and an ultra-sonochemical technique. Subsequently, the admixture is impregnated with Kevlar - bypassing the heating and evaporating processes involved with STF. The resulting composites have shown remarkable improvement in spike resistance; at least one order higher than that of STF/Kevlar composites. The source of improvement has been traced to the formation of secondary amine C-N stretch due to the presence of Gluta. / by Vincent Lambert. / Thesis (M.S.C.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2009. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2009. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Orientador: Vicente Lopes Junior / Banca: Ricardo Tokio Higuti / Banca: Marcus Antônio Viana Duarte / Resumo: A crescente utilização de materiais compósitos nos projetos de engenharia tem trazido vários avanços, viabilizando e aperfeiçoando estruturas com características superiores que as encontradas nas ligas metálicas que são largamente utilizadas durante muitos anos e que atualmente estão sendo substituídas de forma parcial ou integral em aplicações onde se espera alto desempenho. A aplicação deste tipo de material tem sido significativa em vários segmentos de engenharia, como na área de transportes (aeronáutica, aeroespacial, naval, ferroviário, automobilística, etc.), construção civil, artigos esportivos, entre outras. Uma grande vantagem dos materiais compósitos é a possibilidade de compor, através da grande variedade de matrizes e reforços, um número ilimitado de combinações destes elementos, tornando cada combinação uma peça com características única, sendo capaz de atender necessidades específicas de cada projeto. Neste trabalho é proposto um método de detecção e localização de danos em compósitos que compõe a estrutura de uma fuselagem de avião, podendo ser utilizado independentemente da temperatura atuante no avião. O método é baseado nas ondas de Lamb e se caracteriza por ser um método não-destrutivo, NDE (do inglês Nondestructive Evaluation). Os testes experimentais foram realizados para diferentes condições de danos em uma faixa de temperatura que variou de -45°C a 105°C. Para a aplicação do sinal de atuação e para a aquisição dos sinais foram utilizados transdutores piezelétricos (PZT), que são indicados para este tipo aplicação por possuírem grande eficiência em altas frequências e por ser versátil, servindo tanto como atuador quanto sensor. Para auxiliar a detecção e localização automática dos danos na estrutura foi utilizada a técnica de Redes Neurais Artificiais que possuem ótima robustez e capacidade de generalização para isolar o efeito da temperatura na... / Abstract: The increasing use of composite materials has brought many beneficial advances for engineering design, improving structure features when comparing with traditional metallic alloys. Although these alloys has been used for centuries, in many applications composite materials are substituting them partially or completely. The use of this kind of materials has produced a great impact in several areas of engineering, as transportation (aeronautics, aerospace, naval, railroad, automobile, etc.), civil construction, sport equipments, etc. An important advantage of composite materials is the possibility of compose an unlimited number of combinations of this elements thought the wide variety of matrix and reinforcements. Each combination becomes a piece with unique characteristics, able to attend specific requirements in a project. In this study, a carbon fiber plate, material used as component of the fuselage in aircrafts, is used in the experimental tests for developing a damage identification and locating method that is able to be used during the flight. The method is based on Lamb waves and it is a non-destructive evaluation (NDE). The tests were done in different conditions for a temperature range from de -45oC to 105oC. The sensing and actuation were based on piezoelectric materials (PZT), which are a versatile smart material indicated to this work since it can be utilized either as actuator or as sensor and because is very efficient at high frequencies. The process automation is realized through the application of Artificial Neural Network, since this technique has optimum robustness and capability of generalization, which are important characteristics to achieve the objective / Mestre

Neste trabalho estudou-se o efeito de três diferentes tratamentos químicos utilizando- se soluções aquosas de LiCl, NaCl, e HCl sobre o inchamento, a distribuição de tamanho de partículas e a capacidade de troca catiônica (CTC) de uma vermiculita proveniente da jazida de Paulistana, localizada no Estado do Piauí, visando seu uso em compósitos de matriz polimérica. Para os tratamentos com sais inorgânicos foram utilizadas várias concentrações de LiCl e NaCl a 90°C por 144 horas, permitindo a secagem da solução de tratamento. Para o tratamento ácido foram utilizadas soluções 2M de HCl à temperatura ambiente, utilizando tempos de tratamento de 2 a 10 horas. Após os tratamentos, as amostras foram submetidas a agitação mecânica intensa em dispersor de alta energia de cisalhamento (24000 RPM). Todos os tratamentos empregados resultaram em aumentos nos índices de inchamento e reduçães nos tamanhos de partícula em diferentes graus. Os maiores inchamentos antes da agitação mecânica foram observados nas amostras tratadas com soluções 0,8M de LiCl sem lavagem (4 a 5 vezes a da prova em branco). Após agitação mecânica, os maiores inchamentos foram observados nas amostras tratadas com soluções 2M de HCl por 5 horas (11 vezes a da prova em branco). No entanto, após o processo de secagem não foi possível atingir-se os mesmos valores de inchamento. A diminuição mais importante no tamanho de partícula foi observada nas amostras tratadas com soluções 2M de HCl durante 5 horas, enquanto que as quedas mais significativas nos valores de CTC foram obtidas com as amostras tratadas com soluções 2M de HCl (CTC crescentes com o aumento do tempo de tratamento). Foi analisado o efeito da incorporação de vermiculita tratada acidamente em uma matriz polimérica de polipropileno (PP). A presençaa dessa vermiculita provocou um alto nível de degradação na matriz de PP, com a consequentemente perda de propriedades mecânicas. Esta degradação pode ser atribuída à formação de sítios ácidos nas partículas de vermiculita gerados pelo ataque do HCl, bem como à presença de HCl residual da solução de tratamento. / In the present work, the effect of three different chemical treatments using inorganic solutions of LiCl, NaCl, and HCl on the swelling, particle size distribution, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) of a vermiculite clay was studied. The clay is originary from Paulistana mine, located in the State of Piauí, Northeastern Brazil, and the final purpose of the treatment of the clay was its use in polymer-matrix composites. For the inorganic salts treatments, several solutions of NaCl and LiCl at different concentrations were used, at 90°C for 144 hours, allowing the treatment solution to dry out. For the acid treatment, 2M HCl solutions at room temperature were used, using treatment times of 2 to 10 hours. After the treatments, all the samples were subjected to intense mechanical stirring in the high shear energy disperser (24000 RPM). The results showed that all treatments resulted in increases in the rates of swelling and reduction in the mean particle sizes, in different degrees. The largest swelling before mechanical stirring was observed in samples treated with solutions of 0.8M LiCl without washing (4 to 5 times that of the untreated sample). After mechanical desagglomeration, the highest swelling was observed in samples treated with solutions 2M HCl for 5 hours (11 times that of the untreated sample). However, after drying, it was no longer possible to achieve the same values of swelling. The most significant decrease in particle size was observed in samples treated with solutions 2M HCl for 5 hours, whereas the most significant reduction in the CEC values were also obtained with the samples treated with solutions 2M HCl (CEC increasing with the time of treatment). Finally, the effect of the addition of the acid treated vermiculite to a polymeric matrix of polypropylene (PP) was examined. The evaluation of the resultant composite specimens indicated that the presence of vermiculite caused a high level of degradation of the PP matrix, with the consequent loss of mechanical properties. This degradation can be attributed to the formation of acidic sites on the vermiculite particles, generated by the direct attack of HCl, and the presence of residual HCl from the treatment solution.

Este trabalho tem o objetivo de determinar as constantes elásticas de laminados compósitos de carbono/epóxi através do método não destrutivo de ultrassom, utilizando a técnica da imersão. Foram implementados dois métodos de imersão em água para a determinação das constantes elásticas. Um que utiliza o percurso na água sem a amostra como referência (FRM), e outro que utiliza o percurso com incidência normal na amostra como referência (SRM). Laminados unidirecionais e biaxiais foram ensaiados em um goniômetro com elevada precisão de movimento angular, e a aquisição de sinais feita com alta taxa de amostragem e grande resolução de amplitude. Uma análise da influência da variação da temperatura e espessura foi feita e comprovada a superioridade do método SRM sobre o FRM. A compensação da temperatura através de um par de transdutores, bem como através de um termômetro com resolução de 0.01°C foi implementada e comparada. As curvas de velocidade foram obtidas com transdutores de diferentes frequências centrais e comparadas. Foi realizada uma análise detalhada da sensibilidade das constantes elásticas com relação as velocidades em cada plano de medição, e através desta análise foram utilizados os planos mais adequados para reconstrução das constantes elásticas. Também foi verificada a polarização das ondas de cisalhamento para cada plano de medição, uma vez que é necessária a correta associação da velocidade experimental com a velocidade calculada para o procedimento de otimização. Um algoritmo de otimização foi utilizado para reconstruir as constantes elásticas dos laminados compósitos a partir da medição experimental das velocidades, onde foi avaliada a convergência utilizando a equação de Christoffel na forma implícita e explícita, para os materiais de simetria tetragonal e hexagonal. / The objective of this work is to obtain the elastic constants of carbon/epoxy composite laminates using ultrasonic non destructive testing, with immersion technique. Two immersion methods were implemented. One method uses as reference the path without sample, called fluid reference method (FRM), the second method uses the path with the specimen in normal incidence, called self-reference method (SRM). Unidirectional and biaxial laminates were tested using a goniometer with high angular resolution, and the signals were acquired with a high sample rate and amplitude resolution. Analyses of the influence of temperature and thickness variations were performed and concluded the superiority of the SRM over the FRM method. Temperature compensation using a pair of transducers and a 0.01° resolution thermometer was implemented and compared. Velocity curves were obtained and compared using transducers with different frequencies. A detailed analysis was performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the elastic constants to each velocity in different acquisition planes, and the results were used to reconstruct the elastic constants in the planes/velocities which they were most sensible to. As the correct association of each experimental velocity with the calculated velocities from Christoffel\'s equation is necessary, an analysis of the polarization mode of each velocity in the acquisition planes was also performed. An optimization algorithm was used to reconstruct the elastic constants of composite laminates from experimental velocities. Its convergence was evaluated for the implicit and explicit form of Christoffel\'s equation, and for materials with tetragonal and hexagonal symmetry.

An experimental investigation was undertaken to determine the effects of marine environmental exposure on the mechanical properties of vinylester resins (VE510A and VE8084) and carbon fiber/VE510A vinylester composites. The effect of carbon fiber sizing on the composite strengths was also examined. Neat resins were exposed to marine environments until moisture content reached a point of saturation after which they were tested in tension, compression and shear. Compared to the baseline dry specimens, specimens subjected to moisture showed overall increased ductility and a reduction in strength. Dry and moisture saturated composite specimens were tested in tension and compression in different orientations. Longitudinal specimens were tested in in-plane shear and interlaminar shear. Composites with F-sized carbon fibers displayed overall higher strength than those with G-sized fibers at both dry and moisture saturated conditions. An analysis of moisture absorption of the composites was performed which vii shows that the moisture up-take is dominated by the fiber/matrix region which absorbs up to 90% of the moisture. The composites experienced reduced strength after moisture absorption. The results revealed that the fiber sizing has stronger effect on the fiber/matrix interface dominated strengths than moisture up-take. / by Alexander M. Figlionini. / Thesis (M.S.C.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2011. Mode of access: World Wide Web.