The present study extends previous research on self-control procedures and the transformation of stimulus functions. Using a multiple baseline design, participants were exposed to a relational responding task in which attempted to manipulate the functions of stimuli. They were exposed to a preference assessment, a naturalistic baseline, and a choice baseline before the relational training and testing were implemented. This procedure established contextual cues of more-than and less-than when paired with multiple exemplars of the stimuli during training. Re-exposure to the choice baseline was introduced in order to support the transformation of functions. Results are discussed regarding the alteration of preferences from the small, immediate reinforcer initially, to the larger, more delayed reinforcer following the intervention. Implications of the study and future research are also discussed.

Memory, or the ability to recall previously learned information, has been evaluated among different populations. Some previous research has utilized different forms of verbal prompts to assist participants in recalling associations. These verbal prompts can be categorized as simple or elaborative. Although previous research has indicated that both forms of verbal prompts are effective in teaching individuals to relate stimulus pairs, there is currently no research that compares these prompting methods. Therefore, the current study sought to compare simple and elaborative prompts for teaching a picture-association task with four typically developing preschool children. Data suggest that elaborative prompts were more effective in teaching associations across all participants and resulted in similar levels of maintenance at 1-week and 1-month probes. Keywords. associative learning, memory, verbal prompts

Psychologists interested in the study of language find that people are faster at making decisions about words that are related than they are at making decisions about words that are not related – an effect called semantic priming. This phenomenon has largely only been document in laboratory settings using natural languages as contest and real words as stimuli. The current study explores the relation between the semantic priming effect and a laboratory procedure designed to give rise to performances that can be described as linguistic. Six adult participants learned to partition a collection of eight stimuli into two sets of four stimuli. Following this, the subjects showed the semantic priming effect within a set of stimuli but not across sets. These data suggest that it may be possible to study linguistic phenomenon in laboratory-based procedures allowing better control and the ability to ask very precise questions about linguistic functioning.

The present study sought to identify the effects that derived relational training had on simulated gambling behavior with slot machines. Prior to conducting any relational training procedures, participants' relational responses in each contextual condition was probed. Each of the four backgrounds/conditions (red, blue, green, yellow) were presented with various stimuli from differing stimulus classes. Twenty trials were presented with no feedback for correct responding. Upon completion of the probes, pretest preference assessments were administered with blue and red slot machines being concurrently available for twenty trials then green and yellow slot machines doing the same. Following the pretest preference assessment, relational training began, here stimuli from each of the stimulus classes were presented on screen for three of the contextual conditions with the blue contextual condition left out to assess for possible derived relational responses. After completion, the second set of relational probes and posttest preference assessments began to assess if relational training altered the response allocation of slot machines and accuracy of responding during probes. After relational training, all participants showed an increase in response allocation to the red slot machine and a decrease to the blue. The yellow slot machine was selected increasingly with three participants while green was selected more often with one individual, one staying at the same number, and two selecting it less than in the pretest.

Os índices de evasão e fracasso escolar no ensino fundamental no Brasil, nos dias atuais, ainda são alarmantes. Torna-se importante o planejamento de procedimentos que minimizem as dificuldades envolvidas no aprendizado da leitura e escrita e potencializem a aquisição dessas habilidades. Nessa direção, vários grupos de pesquisadores têm focado seus estudos, através do paradigma de equivalência, visando identificar as variáveis relacionadas com a formação de classes de equivalência e suas relações com a leitura, trazendo nítidas implicações educacionais. Porém, quando a leitura com compreensão é adquirida, não significa necessariamente que o leitor esteja sob controle das unidades verbais menores do que a palavra. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar variáveis relevantes no processo da emergência do controle por unidades mínimas e, portanto, da leitura recombinativa, com cinco crianças pré-escolares. Foi utilizado o programa EQUIV, em que foram ensinadas as relações entre palavra ditada e palavra impressa correspondente (AC); em seguida testadas a leitura de novas palavras, formadas pela recombinação das unidades menores presentes nas palavras ensinadas previamente. O programa era constituído de vinte fases, que se dividiam em cinco tipos básicos de procedimentos: Pré-Teste, Pré-Treino, Treinos, Testes e Pós-testes. Os dados demonstraram que três participantes apresentaram desempenhos próximos de 100% nos Testes de Leitura Recombinativa, indicando transferência das funções discriminativas das unidades mínimas das palavras de treino para as novas palavras. Nos pós-testes todos os participantes foram capazes de nomear palavras e sílabas as quais não eram capazes de nomear anteriormente. Nos testes de Equivalência realizados ao final do programa, os mesmos três participantes obtiveram desempenhos próximos de 100%, o que indica leitura com compreensão. Os resultados do presente estudo indicam que a ausência dos treinos das relações entre palavra ditada e figuras (AB) e dos Testes de Equivalência, não impediram a emergência do controle por unidades mínimas, sugerindo um procedimento mais econômico para a obtenção da leitura recombinativa. Portanto, o ganho de se instalar o controle por unidades mínimas mais rapidamente, suscita questões teóricas e sugere pesquisas futuras nessa direção. / The percentage of drop outs in Brazilian primary school is still alarming. It is important, though, to arrange procedures that minimize difficulties in reading and writing and maximize the acquisition of these abilities. In this direction, many groups of researchers have focused in studies in which through equivalence paradigm they identify variables related with the formation of equivalences class and its relations with reading comprehension. But when reading comprehension is acquired, it does not necessarily means that the reader is under the control of minimal verbal units of the word. The present study aimed to investigate the relevant variables in the process of emergence of minimal unit control and recombinative reading, with five preschool children. Using EQUIV software, relations between oral and printed word (AC) were taught; afterwards, textual behavior of novel words were tested, which were composed by minimal units of the words taught previously. The program consisted of twenty experimental phases, divided into four basic types: Pretest, Pretraining, Training and Post- Test. The results showed that three participants presented recombinative reading closer to 100% correct performances, indicating transfer of discriminative functions of the minimal units trained to new words. In Post- Tests, all participants developed repertoire of naming oral words and syllables that werent able to name before. In Equivalence Tests applied in the final phase, the same three participants obtained performance closer to 100%, indicating reading comprehension. The results of the present study point that the absence of training relations between oral word and picture (AB) and Equivalence Tests, didnt inhibit the emergence of control by minimal units, suggesting economy in the procedures of recombinative reading. Hence, the quicker installment of minimal verbal units control than previous studies generates theoretical questions and suggests future researches in this direction.

Os índices de evasão e fracasso escolar no ensino fundamental no Brasil, nos dias atuais, ainda são alarmantes. Torna-se importante o planejamento de procedimentos que minimizem as dificuldades envolvidas no aprendizado da leitura e escrita e potencializem a aquisição dessas habilidades. Nessa direção, vários grupos de pesquisadores têm focado seus estudos, através do paradigma de equivalência, visando identificar as variáveis relacionadas com a formação de classes de equivalência e suas relações com a leitura, trazendo nítidas implicações educacionais. Porém, quando a leitura com compreensão é adquirida, não significa necessariamente que o leitor esteja sob controle das unidades verbais menores do que a palavra. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar variáveis relevantes no processo da emergência do controle por unidades mínimas e, portanto, da leitura recombinativa, com cinco crianças pré-escolares. Foi utilizado o programa EQUIV, em que foram ensinadas as relações entre palavra ditada e palavra impressa correspondente (AC); em seguida testadas a leitura de novas palavras, formadas pela recombinação das unidades menores presentes nas palavras ensinadas previamente. O programa era constituído de vinte fases, que se dividiam em cinco tipos básicos de procedimentos: Pré-Teste, Pré-Treino, Treinos, Testes e Pós-testes. Os dados demonstraram que três participantes apresentaram desempenhos próximos de 100% nos Testes de Leitura Recombinativa, indicando transferência das funções discriminativas das unidades mínimas das palavras de treino para as novas palavras. Nos pós-testes todos os participantes foram capazes de nomear palavras e sílabas as quais não eram capazes de nomear anteriormente. Nos testes de Equivalência realizados ao final do programa, os mesmos três participantes obtiveram desempenhos próximos de 100%, o que indica leitura com compreensão. Os resultados do presente estudo indicam que a ausência dos treinos das relações entre palavra ditada e figuras (AB) e dos Testes de Equivalência, não impediram a emergência do controle por unidades mínimas, sugerindo um procedimento mais econômico para a obtenção da leitura recombinativa. Portanto, o ganho de se instalar o controle por unidades mínimas mais rapidamente, suscita questões teóricas e sugere pesquisas futuras nessa direção. / The percentage of drop outs in Brazilian primary school is still alarming. It is important, though, to arrange procedures that minimize difficulties in reading and writing and maximize the acquisition of these abilities. In this direction, many groups of researchers have focused in studies in which through equivalence paradigm they identify variables related with the formation of equivalences class and its relations with reading comprehension. But when reading comprehension is acquired, it does not necessarily means that the reader is under the control of minimal verbal units of the word. The present study aimed to investigate the relevant variables in the process of emergence of minimal unit control and recombinative reading, with five preschool children. Using EQUIV software, relations between oral and printed word (AC) were taught; afterwards, textual behavior of novel words were tested, which were composed by minimal units of the words taught previously. The program consisted of twenty experimental phases, divided into four basic types: Pretest, Pretraining, Training and Post- Test. The results showed that three participants presented recombinative reading closer to 100% correct performances, indicating transfer of discriminative functions of the minimal units trained to new words. In Post- Tests, all participants developed repertoire of naming oral words and syllables that werent able to name before. In Equivalence Tests applied in the final phase, the same three participants obtained performance closer to 100%, indicating reading comprehension. The results of the present study point that the absence of training relations between oral word and picture (AB) and Equivalence Tests, didnt inhibit the emergence of control by minimal units, suggesting economy in the procedures of recombinative reading. Hence, the quicker installment of minimal verbal units control than previous studies generates theoretical questions and suggests future researches in this direction.

Between 1% and 1.4% of people who engage in gambling behaviors lead to disordered or pathological gambling (Whiting & Dixon, 2015), while 44% of all money spent on legal gambling is done so with slot machines (Choliz, 2010). Various behavioral concepts have been theorized as a possible source of gambling addition; losses disguised as wins (LDWs), near-miss, gamblers’ fallacy, illusions of control, and verbally constructed self-rules related to these topics. The current study sought to extend the previous research on condition discrimination in altering slot machine preference while also analyzing the effects of vocalized self-rules during slot machine selection. Conclusions are drawn regarding results comparing cumulative selection to various vocal statement categories. Limitations are expressed and future research is suggested.

Memory-trace theories of remembering suggest that performance in delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) procedures depends on a memory trace that degrades with time. By contrast, the theory of direct remembering suggests that increasing the delay between sample and comparison stimuli in DMTS procedures is functionally equivalent to decreasing the disparity between sample stimuli. The present dissertation tested this assumption by assessing the degree to which changes in the frequency of reinforcement for correct choices biased the distribution of choice responses in a conditional-discrimination procedure. Seven pigeons responded under a temporal-discrimination procedure in which temporal sample-stimuli were categorized as being of either short or long duration by a response to a corresponding comparison key. In the sample-stimulus disparity condition, the disparity between the sample stimuli (difference between the short and long samples) was manipulated. In the retention-interval condition, the delay between sample offset and presentation of the comparison stimuli was manipulated. Importantly, the same general procedure was used across conditions, facilitating conclusions regarding functional equivalence of the two manipulations. The theory of direct remembering suggests that the relation between sensitivity of behavior to changes in reinforcer frequency and discriminability (accuracy) should be similar in the sample-stimulus disparity and retention-interval condition. The results showed that discriminability decreased with both the sample-stimulus disparity and retention-interval manipulations. Overall estimates of sensitivity were similar to those obtained previously. There was, however, no difference in the estimates of sensitivity as a function of discriminability during either the sample-stimulus disparity or retention-interval conditions; sensitivity was independent of discriminability. These results are in contrast to most previous reports, and are interpreted in terms of the use of temporal-sample stimuli in the current experiment. Further analyses of the choice-response data showed that the effects of variation in reinforcer ratios differed across conditions as a function of trial type and trial difficulty. These results suggest the need for careful consideration of behavioral outcomes at several levels of analysis when assessing functional equivalence of experimental manipulations. The potential benefits and hindrances of characterization of behavioral outcomes in terms of functional equivalence are discussed.

O presente estudo investigou comportamentos simbólicos nos portadores de Síndrome de Apert por meio do paradigma da equivalência de estímulos, uma vez que este pode fornecer subsídios para a compreensão do comportamento humano complexo, tais como o comportamento simbólico e a linguagem. Foram propostos três experimentos cujos participantes, com idades entre 16 e 21 anos, foram submetidos aos Experimentos 1 e 2 (P1, P2 e P3) e submetidos ao Experimento 3 (P4 e P5). No Experimento 1, o objetivo foi verificar a formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes após o treino de relações condicionais, por meio de uma tarefa de matching to sample (MTS) com atraso de 0 s e três estímulos de comparação. Após o participante atingir um percentual de acerto de 94% no bloco, foram conduzidos testes de equivalência (CA), simetria (BA e CB) e transitividade (AC). De maneira geral, houve falha nos testes, com relativa preservação do teste de simetria. No Experimento 2, os participantes foram expostos à tarefa de MTS com atraso de 0 s e três estímulos de comparação, mas estes e o estímulo modelo apresentavam-se inicialmente cobertos, tornando-se visíveis somente após a emissão de respostas de observação (ROs). Foram introduzidas ROs na tarefa de MTS, com o objetivo de identificar que tipos de controle (seleção ou rejeição) poderiam estar em operação na formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes. Nos testes, o participante P3 formou classes de equivalência, contudo, os participantes P1 e P2 continuaram a apresentar falha na formação de equivalência, com preservação do teste de simetria. No Experimento 3, foram apresentadas variações metodológicas com o objetivo de favorecer o estabelecimento de um ou de outro tipo de controle (seleção ou rejeição), durante o treino das relações condicionais e verificar os efeitos destas variações no desempenho obtido nos testes. O participante P4 foi submetido primeiramente à situação na qual a terceira RO produzia o estímulo correto em 80% das tentativas (80%/3ª S+). Posteriormente 9 à realização das tarefas sob esta condição, foi submetido à situação na qual a primeira RO produzia o estímulo correto em 80% das tentativas (80%/1ª S+). O participante P5 foi exposto à ordem inversa: primeiramente à situação 80%/1ª S+ e posteriormente à situação 80%/3ª S+. Nos testes, em ambas as situações, o participante P4 foi capaz de aprender as relações de equivalência propostas pelo experimentador. Diferentemente, o responder do participante P5 não se apresentou sob controle discriminativo das contingências programadas pelo experimentador. De um modo geral, os resultados obtidos pelo presente estudo acrescidos das análises do teste PEABODY, sugerem que as dificuldades para a formação de classes de equivalência em participantes com baixo funcionamento lingüístico podem decorrer, em grande parte, de preparação e adaptação insuficiente de procedimentos para esse tipo de população / The present study investigated the symbolic behaviors of patients with Apert Syndrome through the paradigm of stimulus equivalence, since it may provide a basis for understanding complex human behavior, such as symbolic behavior and language. It had been proposed three experiments which participants, aged between 16 and 21 years, were submitted to Experiments 1 and 2 (P1, P2 and P3) and to Experiment 3 (P4 e P5). In Experiment 1, the objective was to assess the formation of classes of equivalent stimuli after training of conditional relations, through a task of matching to sample (MTS) and delay of 0s and three comparison stimuli. After the participant reaches a 94% criterion for accuracy in the block, tests were conducted for equivalence (CA), symmetry (BA and CB) and transitivity (AC). In general, the participants failed the tests, with relative preservation of the symmetry test. In Experiment 2, the participants were exposed to the task of MTS with delay of 0s and three comparison stimuli, but these and the sample stimulus were initially covered, becoming visible only after the observation responses (OR´s) issuance. ORs were introduced in the MTS task, with the objective to assess what kind of different controls (selection and rejection) could be involved in the formation of classes of equivalent stimuli. In tests, participant P3 showed the formation of classes of equivalent stimuli; however, participants P1 and P2 had failed to form equivalence, preserving the symmetry test. In Experiment 3 were presented methodological variations with the objective of encouraging the establishment of one or another type of control (selection or rejection) during the training of conditional relations and verify the effects of these variations in performance obtained in tests. Participant P4 was, at first, subjected to the situation which the third OR produced the correct stimulus in 80% of attempts (80% / 3rd S +). After the tasks under this condition were performed, P4 underwent a situation which the first OR produced the correct stimulus in 80% of attempts (80% / 1st S +). The participant P5 was exposed to the reverse order: first of all to the situation 80% / 1st S + and subsequently to the situation 80% / 3rd S +. In the tests, in both situations, the participant P4 was able to learn the equivalence 11 relations proposed by the experimenter. In contrast, the response of the participant P5 was not under discriminative control of the contingencies programmed by the experimenter. In general, the results obtained by this study plus the analysis of the PEABODY data suggests that difficulties in the formation of equivalence classes in participants with low language functioning may be due, in large part from inadequate preparation and adjustment procedures for this type of population

No procedimento de discriminação condicional de origem skinneriana, geralmente, usa-se o procedimento de matching-to-sample (MTS). Esse procedimento também é utilizado para se estudar a equivalência de estímulos. Sidman e Tailby (1982) estabeleceram três testes para verificar se estímulos usados em tarefas de discriminação condicional podem ser considerados equivalentes entre si: reflexividade, simetria e transitividade. No procedimento de discriminação condicional de origem pavloviana, os estímulos podem ser apresentados de duas formas: simultânea e seriada. Na apresentação simultânea, os estímulos são apresentados juntos ou sucessivamente, sem intervalo entre suas apresentações (XA). Na apresentação seriada há um intervalo entre as apresentações dos estímulos (XA). Dependendo da forma de apresentação dos estímulos, diferentes associações entre os estímulos e o estímulo incondicionado (US) são formadas. Quando a apresentação é simultânea, forma-se uma associação entre o estímulo X e o US. Quando a apresentação é seriada, forma-se uma associação entre o estímulo A e o US e o estímulo X estabelece a ocasião para a ocorrência da relação entre A e US ocorre (Ross & Holland, 1981). Na discriminação condicional de origem pavloviana, a liberação do US não depende do comportamento do rato. Entretanto, o procedimento também pode ser usado com comportamento operante. No presente trabalho, buscou-se estudar o efeito da apresentação seriada dos estímulos sobre o desempenho de ratos durante os testes de equivalência de estímulos em um procedimento de discriminação condicional. Foram utilizados 32 ratos machos Wistar. O experimento envolveu diversas fases: (a) treino ao bebedouro, (b) modelagem do comportamento de pressão à barra, (c) CRF, (d) discriminação simples, (e) discriminação condicional, (f) testes de transferência e os de equivalência de estímulos (reflexividade, simetria e transitividade). Os ratos foram divididos em 2 grupos: o Simultâneo e o Seriado. No grupo Simultâneo, os estímulos foram apresentados sucessivamente, não havendo intervalo de tempo entre suas apresentações, enquanto que no grupo Seriado, houve um intervalo de 5 segundos entre as apresentações dos estímulos. Cada um desses grupos foram subdivididos em 2 grupos: grupo Tom e grupo Luz. No primeiro grupo, o estímulo característica usado foi um Tom, enquanto que no segundo grupo o estímulo foi uma Luz. Os resultados mostraram que os ratos aprenderam a tarefa de discriminação condicional. No teste de transferência observou-se que houve transferência em praticamente todos os 4 grupos. Durante o teste de equivalência, foi observadas a emergência de algumas relações. Na discussão, os dados foram discutidos a partir das literaturas de discriminação condicional de origem skinneriana e de origem pavloviana. / In a Skinnerian conditional discrimination procedure generally the procedure of matching-to-sample (MTS) is used. This procedure is also used to study the stimulus equivalence. Sidman and Tailby (1982) established three tests to verify whether stimuli used in conditional discrimination tasks can be considered equivalent to each other: reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity. In a Pavlovian conditional discrimination procedure, the compounds of stimuli may be in two forms: simultaneous and serial. In the simultaneous compounds, the stimuli are presented together or successively, without an interval between their presentations (XA). In the serial compounds there is an interval between stimuli presentations (X A). Depending on the form of presentation of the compounds of stimuli, different associations between stimuli and the unconditioned stimulus (US) are formed. In a simultaneous compound of stimuli an association between stimulus X and the US is formed. In a serial compound of stimuli an association between the stimulus A and the US is formed and the stimulus X sets the occasion for the occurrence of the association between stimulus A and the US (Ross & Holland, 1981). In Pavlovian conditional discrimination, the US presentation does not depend on the behavior of the rat. However, the procedure can also be used with operant behavior. In this study, we sought to study the effect of serial presentation of stimuli on the performance of rats during tests of equivalence of stimuli in a conditional discrimination procedure. We used 32 male Wistar rats. The rats were divided into two groups: Simultaneous Compounds and Serial Compounds. In the Simultaneous Compounds Group, stimuli were presented successively with no interval between their presentations. In the Serial Compounds Group, there was an interval of 5 seconds between the presentations of stimuli. Each of these groups was subdivided into two groups: Tone and Light. In the Tone Group, the feature stimulus used was a tone, and in the Light Group the feature stimulus was a light. The results of the experiment showed that the rats learned the task of conditional discrimination. In the transfer test was observed substantial transfer in almost all four groups. During the equivalence test were observed emergence of certain relationships. In the discussion, the data were discussed using the literature from Skinnerian conditional discrimination and from Pavlovian conditional discrimination.