Like its ancestral disciplines, archaeology is no stranger to human conflict. Greek and Roman warfare often resulted in the sacking of cities, with all property (public, private, temple) taken as booty and the population and heritage exterminated or absorbed (men killed, women and children sold into slavery). In addition to the personal danger risked in a hostile region, archaeologists may also be thrust into deep and divisive cultural embattlements. Cultural property may be destroyed, intentionally or unintentionally. Graves, including potential evidence of genocide or mass murder, may be disturbed. Archaeologists may find themselves embroiled in many of these disputes and violent events, leading to difficult and complex ethical issues. This viperous nest of ethical concerns is amplified where an archaeologist is present as part of, or perceived to be related to, an invading or occupying military force. The goal of this thesis is to develop an engaging and pragmatic virtue-based professional ethic that may guide an archaeologist and archaeology through the ethical bramble bush raised by modern human conflict. The present ethical systems, based primarily on utilitarian or deontological principles manifested in ethical codes, are deficient because they fail to establish the archaeologist as a trustee (active or passive) in a political dynamic, elevate the archaeological record even when these professional codes purport to discount its importance, fail to address adequately the matrix of relationships in a manner that ensures trust across the interests of all stakeholders – both present and past, and dramatically fail to identify and develop the central thrust of a professional ethic (as opposed to personal moral judgment) in the first instance.

Conflict archaeology is a fairly new discipline and is in the process of defining its methods and theories. Recently, the American Battlefield Protection Program has started requiring that grant applicants perform a KOCOA analysis. KOCOA is a modern military technique and stands for Key terrain, Obstacle, Cover and Concealment, Observation, and Avenues of Approach. However, this method was developed for modern warfare, and its adoption by the archaeological community has not yet been analyzed. I argue that this method needs a few modifications to make it more applicable to historical research and that it can be broadened to investigate more complex questions regarding decision-making processes. In its current form, KOCOA only looks at how a landscape was used during conflict based on the results of what happened. I contend we can use this method to analyze the landscape and look at the decisions that went into selecting it. Employing KOCOA in this manner will allow us to understand how militaries adapted, or failed to adapt, to a given landscape. The Second Seminole War in Florida (1835-1842) can serve as an ideal case study. For one thing, the military had never experienced the Florida environment, and therefore adaptations to landscape utilization will be readily apparent. Also, in the early 19th-century, the military as a cultural institution indoctrinated its members through extensive training at the United States Military Academy in West Point, NY, and I propose this standardized education had a significant negative effect on the shape, direction, and outcome of the Second Seminole War due to the gap between the knowledge gained through training and the knowledge needed in the field when fighting a war with Indians in the swamps and hammocks of Florida. Using modern military theory, the purpose of this research is to develop tools to measure how traditional European educational methods, which officers received while at the Military Academy, hindered their ability to adapt to the unique and challenging environment they encountered while trying to remove the Seminole Indians from the Florida territory. Conflict archaeology is also well suited to investigate the more human side, such as the decision-making processes and adaptations required, moving beyond the "what" and "how" aspects of conflict to the "why." One traditional approach to conflict archaeology is KOCOA. As used archaeologically, KOCOA employs modern cartographic information. Those participating in the conflict, however, would not have had access to this level of detail. Therefore, I propose that KOCOA be revised to incorporate the knowledge that would have been available to the decision makers at the time of the conflict. The aim of this research is to expand the methodologies of conflict archaeology to include indirect expressions of warfare and to incorporate them into a meaningful discussion of their role in the outcome of conflict. To accomplish this, I have developed a model against which hypotheses about the decision-making processes and their effectiveness can be compared.

In September of 1777, the British and American Armies were engaged in a series of battles known as the Philadelphia Campaign. Although neither the largest engagement of the campaign nor of the American Revolution, the Battle of Paoli gained notoriety due to the nature of the conflict. The British Army, led by General Charles Gray, conducted a midnight bayonet raid on General Anthony Wayne’s encamped Pennsylvanians. The brutality of the night resulted in the Battle becoming recognized as the Paoli Massacre. This dissertation provides an archaeological exploration of the Battle of Paoli through many lenses, contexts, and throughout time. First, the research illustrates the necessity for studying conflict sites in a more holistic manner. In this realm, archaeologists must consider not only the contexts of the battle, but also the cultural contexts that shaped how warfare occurred and was experienced. Therefore, archaeological fieldwork was performed on the Paoli Battlefield as well as at the home site of the 18th century property owner. This methodology provides the ability to relate the cultural landscape to the landscape of the battle. Additionally, this dissertation applies both historical and archaeological methods to examine and interpret the memory associated with the battle. The Battle of Paoli was short in duration, but the memory of the event and the commemorations associated with its remembrance spans over two-hundred forty years. Thus, this dissertation seeks to expand the understanding of conflict sites beyond a single event to include interpretations regarding broader cultural realties that predate the conflict, in addition to the remembrance practices that influence society well beyond the cessation of conflict. / Anthropology

This diploma thesis presents an overview of the archaeology of military camps and field fortifications from modern period (1498-1815) in the region of South Bohemia. It summarizes and evaluates the present South Bohemian research in the context of modern Euro-Atlantic conflict archaeology as well as the research conducted in Czech Republic. The recherché deals with published Czech and foreign research. An integral part of thesis is the description of the modern period war events concerning South Bohemia with overlap to bordering regions of Germany and Austria. The core of the study contains several case studies, where author presents various types of sites with temporary military constructions using different methodological approaches suitable for individual types. These include the siege of České Budějovice town during the Bohemian Revolt in the years 1618-1619 investigated by the analysis of the iconographic source, localisation and excavation of remains interpreted as one-off field fortification in Lhenice region, or the identification and interpretation of the field camp based on cartographic sources. These chapters presenting also results of field survey, are accompanied by further topics such as the role of castles in modern period conflicts or issue of borderline fortifications and camps.

This project covers the development of a model framework intended to allow researchers of the archaeology of the Cold War to recognise a range of behaviours played out on military sites. The order and chaos model developed and utilised in this thesis introduces a heterotopian landscape populated by the Royal Observer Corps. Through a process of archaeological fieldwork a number of behavioural traits are recognised and discussed here for the first time. The group in question is fully researched, providing a historiography of the practice played out during the groups life-cycle. The landscape archaeology is discussed and contextualised by narration from the volunteers who once operated the posts. A range of case studies are introduced confirming the validity of the order and chaos model and potential for application elsewhere. Finally, the findings are discussed in detail and a proposal for the next step in the research are revealed.

The armour that was found during the excavations of the mass graves after the battle of Visby in the year 1361, has given great knowledge about the 14th century defensive equipment. Bengt Thordeman's analyses and interpretations of the armour-material have influenced modern research on the subject. The predominant narrative is that the militia from Gotland was ill-equipped, and that the Danish army was far superior. However, the aim of this study is to create a more nuanced picture of how the soldiers in the mass graves were equipped, and to contribute to future research on the largely unstudied commoner-armour of the Nordic countries. The study compares armour-items from the mass graves at site of the so-called Korsbetningen, with other archaeological material, the descriptions of folkvapen in Swedish medieval legal documents, and contemporary artwork. This comparison is made to broaden the perspective and see similarities and differences between the Visby material and other sources.     The thesis results in a better understanding of what types of armour that was used during this battle, showing that the head-area was well protected, that the torso was slightly less prioritized to protect, and that the arms and legs were relatively unprotected.

Conflict Event theory has the potential to change how archaeologists investigate battlefield sites. As a theoretical paradigm, eventful archaeology allows us to give agency to social-structure changing events, going beyond collect artifacts after the battle is over. Coupled with site formation processes, this model allows us to project battle elements to re-create the historical events that occurred at conflict sites. Within this theoretical framework, we can begin to understand why the conflict unfolded in a particular manner. Two site of the Texian Revolution are particularly appropriate to this new theoretical model: the San Jacinto Battleground (SJB), the location of the last battle of the Texian Revolution, and Washington-on-the-Brazos (WOB), the location of the signing of the Texas Declaration of Independence. Merging this theoretical model with an investigation of site formation processes (understanding the matrix in which the artifacts lie) and pulse-domain electromagnetic surveying allows for a much more robust approach to Battlefield Archaeology. Pulse-induction allows for the detection of discrete artifacts in the soil, and is a much more reliable method than the more commonly used magnetometry. Analyzing characteristics of the soil surrounding the artifacts then gives us a third line of inquiry as to why artifacts are in certain locations in the archaeological record, allowing for an explanation as to their quality and quantity. La teoría del Acontecimiento del conflicto tiene el potencial para cambiar cómo arqueólogos investigan sitios de campo de batalla. Como un paradigma teórico, la arqueología llena de acontecimientos nos permite dar agencia a la social-estructura que cambia acontecimientos, yendo más allá de reúne artefactos después de que la batalla esté sobre. Asociado con procesos de formación de sitio, este modelo nos permite proyectar batalla elementos para recrear los acontecimientos históricos que ocurrieron en sitios de conflicto. Dentro de esta armazón teórica, nosotros podemos comenzar a comprender por qué el conflicto desplegó en una manera particular. Dos sitio de la Revolución de Texian es especialmente apropiado a este nuevo modelo teórico: el San Campo de batalla de Jacinto (SJB), la ubicación de la última batalla de la Revolución de Texian, y de Washington en el Brazos (WOB), la ubicación del firmar de la Declaración de Tejas de Independencia. Unir este modelo teórico con una investigación de sitúa procesos de formación (comprendiendo la matriz en la que los artefactos están) y el pulso-dominio inspeccionar electromagnético tiene en cuenta un enfoque mucho más robusto a la Arqueología del Campo de batalla. La pulso-inducción tiene en cuenta el descubrimiento de artefactos distintos en la tierra, y es un método mucho más seguro que el magnetometry más comúnmente utilizado. Analizar características de la tierra que rodea los artefactos entonces nos dan una tercera línea de indagación en cuanto a por qué artefactos están en ciertas ubicaciones en el registro arqueológico, teniendo en cuenta una explicación en cuanto a su calidad y la cantidad.

Text in English with abstracts in English, Afrikaans and isiXhosa / British forces captured the Cape of Good Hope from the Batavian Government in 1806. The archaeological investigation into the Battle of Blaauwberg aims to identify the strategic use of the landscape by both sides focusing on specific geographic areas. Metal detector surveys and the mapping of archaeological material clarified the various battle positions within the reconstructed historical environment. Analysis of the artefacts provided insight into their use and the strategies followed by both armies. Altogether the evidence illuminated the use of the landscape and its influence on the course of the battle. This unique multi-pronged study of a South African battlefield and its material cultural record sheds new light on the 1806 battle, thereby complementing and refining prevailing historical interpretations. It explores methodological issues and approaches that are critical to the domain of battlefield archaeology in South Africa, where a large number of battle sites still await archaeological investigation. / Britse magte het die Kaap die Goeie Hoop in 1806 van die Bataafse Regering verower. Die argeologiese ondersoek na die Slag van Blaauwberg is gerig op die identifikasie van die strategiese gebruik van die landskap deur beide kante met die fokus op spesifieke geografiese areas. Metaalverklikkeropnames en die kartering van argeologiese materiaal het die onderskeie gevegsposisies in die gerekonstrueerde geskiedkundige omgewing opgeklaar. ’n Ontleding van die artefakte het insig gebied in hul gebruik en die strategieë wat beide gevegsmagte gevolg het. In die geheel gesien, belig die getuienis die gebruik van die landskap en hoe dit die verloop van die geveg beïnvloed het. Hierdie unieke meervlakkige studie van ’n Suid-Afrikaanse slagveld en sy materiële kultuurrekord werp nuwe lig op die 1806-veldslag en sodoende word bestaande historiese interpretasies aangevul en verfyn. Dit verken metodologiese kwessies en benaderings wat kritiek is vir die domein van slagveldargeologie in Suid-Afrika waar ’n groot aantal gevegsterreine nog argeologies ondersoek moet word. / Imikhosi yaseBhritane yayihlutha iKoloni Yethemba eyayibizwa ngokuba yiCape of Good Hope, iyihlutha kurhulumente waseBatavia ngonyaka we-1806. Uphando lwezixhobo zakudala zexesha ledabi iBattle of Blaauwberg lujolise ekuqwalaseleni ubuchule bokusetyenziswa kobume belizwe ngala macala mabini, lugxininisa kwiindawo ezithile. Isifundo sembali senza uqikelelo lobunjani bedabi, kwaqhutywa iintlolo zimvo ezisebenzisa izixhobo zesinyithi nokuphengululwa kwezixhobo ezifumaneke kwizakhiwo zakudala nezacacisa iindawo ezahlukeneyo zedabi. Izixhobo zokusebenza ezafunyaniswayo zatyhila ulwazi lwendlela ezazisetyenziswa ngayo namacebo obulumko awayesetyenziswa yimikhosi yamacala omabini. Ubungqina bacacisa ukusetyenziswa kobume belizwe nefuthe lobo bume ekuqhubekeni kwedabi. Le ndlela ikhethekileyo, nenobuchule obuziindidi ezahlukeneyo, yokufunda indawo yedabi laseMzantsi Afrika, nengxelo yezinto zenkcubeko, inika ulwazi olutsha ngeli dabi lowe-1806, kwaye yongeza ikwacolisisa indlela yokutolika imbali yeli dabi. Kuphandwa imibandela yeendlela zokwenza namacebo abaluleke kakhulu kwicandelo lophando lwezixhobo zakudala zamadabi eMzantsi Afrika, apho iziza zamadabi eziliqela zisalinde ukuba kuphandwe ngazo. / Anthropology and Archaeology / M.A. (Archaeology)