University of Macau / Faculty of Arts and Humanities. / Department of English

It is generally agreed that language interpreting is cognitively demanding; how- ever, to date there is little evidence to indicate how working memory is involved in the task, perhaps due to methodological limitations. Based on a full considera- tion of key components of interpreting, two series of experiments were conducted to explore how working memory might play a role in discourse and sentence inter- preting. If working memory is implicated both in grammatical encoding into the target language, and in temporary storage of the discourse content, then higher demand in one function might compromise the other. Thus discourses that di er in word orders between languages could increase the processing load and leave less resource for memory maintenance, a ecting recall performance. In Experiment 1, Chinese-English bilingual participants' memory performance was compared when they translated passages from Chinese to English and from English to Chinese, where the expected word order was either congruent or incongruent between source and target. Recall was not sensitive to word order or direction of translation. Per- haps surprisingly, memory for incongruent discourses was numerically better than that for congruent sentences. Experiment 2 showed that interpreting trainees per- formed just like the participants in Experiment 1 did, suggesting that memory performance was not modulated by translation direction in pro cient translators. Experiment 3 explored the relationship between surface form transformation and recall. As discourse paraphrasing did not result in better recall than verbatim recall, it was concluded that the better memory performance for incongruent discourse in- terpreting suggested by Experiment 1 was not the result of active manipulation of word form or word order in interpreting. Finally, a free recall task among native English speakers showed that the incongruent discourses tested in earlier experi- ments were intrinsically more memorable than congruent discourses (Experiment 4). Despite this confound, this series of experiments highlighted the importance of comprehension in interpreting, but it did not rule out the role of working memory in the task. The role of working memory in interpreting was further explored using on-line measures in Experiments 5-8. Experiment 5 replicated a self-paced reading study by Ruiz, Paredes, Macizo, and Bajo (2008), comparing participants’ times to read sentences for translation to those to read them normally. The data showed that participants accessed lexical and syntactic properties of a target language in the reading-for-translation condition when resources were available to them. In order to explore the role of working memory in sentence interpreting, a dual-task paradigm was used in Experiment 6. When participants' working memory was occupied by a secondary task (digit preload), reading times were only different numerically between congruent and incongruent sentences. Crucially, reading times decreased as digit preload increased. Since there were no differences in the interpretations produced or in digit recall, it appears that participants were flexible in their resource allocation, suggesting that processing can be tuned up to optimise performance for concurrent tasks. Experiment 7 refined the procedure in the order of responses for the dual tasks but replicated the results of Experiment 6. A closer examination of participants’ interpretation responses showed that devices that could reduce processing load in target language production may have been strategically employed. Finally, another set of sentences were used in Experiment 8 in an attempt to replicate Experiment 5. A failure to replicate the earlier findings suggested that working memory demand might differ for different syntactic structures in sentence interpreting. All in all, this thesis shows that research in language interpreting benefits by taking a full account of the key components of interpreting. The use of on-line measures allowed us to take a ne-grained approach to the investigation of interpretation processes. It is proposed in this thesis that interpreting research may gain more insight from the data by incorporating some of the theories and methods typically used in research into language production.

Interpreting studies has so far tended to concentrate on simultaneous interpreting over the consecutive mode. Note-taking – an integral part of consecutive interpreting – has therefore received very little scholarly attention. As an indispensable tool in consecutive interpreting, note-taking plays an important role in supporting the interpreter’s memory. This study argues, however, that the interpreter's notes should not be viewed merely as a memory storage tool, but as a third visual language with its own logic and meaning-making practices that need interpreting. The way in which interpreters read their notes is explored here from the perspective of Social Semiotics for two reasons. Firstly, Social Semiotics conceptualises signs as meaning-making resources which are realized in specific communicative contexts to convey specific communicative intentions – unlike previous approaches to note-taking, that have tended to categorise signs as static constituents of relatively finite sign codes. Secondly, Social Semiotics not only accounts for how written language is used in notes, but also how the pictorial component of communication is encoded and interpreted through interpreter’s notes. The interpreter, as a viewer, has to make use of semiotic resources deployed in the notes in order to reconstruct the information given by the speaker and to produce the target speech for the audience. Therefore, the interpreters’ note-reading stage, based on the interaction between signs, can be conceptualised by reference to the concept of visual grammar. This study draws on visual grammar (Kress and van Leeuwen 2006) to analyse interpreter’s notes with a view to gaining a better understanding of how linguistic and visual semiotic resources are deployed in the process of note-taking. Insight into interpreters’ meaning-making practices and note-taking patterns is gained through an experimental study of the notes produced by nine qualified, practising conference interpreters, during a consecutive interpreting task from English into Chinese. The patterns identified in my data set are then compared with the established prescriptive approaches to note-taking training – which are typically based on relatively stable correspondences between note-taking signs/symbols and their meaning. The analysis focuses on certain elements of the source speech (concepts that can be noted down through the use of vectors, geometrical shapes, specific classificational structures, margin, and salience) as reflected in the notes. The way in which interpreters read their notes involves the interaction between two core modes, such as image and language, and a range of sub-modes, such as vectors, geometrical shapes, composition, framing, salience and calligraphy. The results of the analysis indicate that the way in which interpreters arrange the contents of their notes reflects the depth of the information processing effort required by the note-taking process. The findings suggest that the narrative structure in notes seems to assist interpreters in retrieving information at a micro, lexical level, whereas the visual structure would appear to assist interpreters in retrieving information at a macro, contextual level, e.g. in representing the hierarchies of information value, constructing the structure of rendition, and showing the importance of specific signs.

The present thesis is a descriptive theoretical study which aims at mapping Min'jar- Beloruchev's work in the context of contemporary and modern theories and presenting a comprehensive view of author's note-taking system for consecutive interpreting. The analysis of the system forms the crux of this thesis, which focuses on sources that represent the basis of the system, individual features of the system as well as factors that influenced his decisions while working on the system. Other parts of the thesis focuse on a consecutive interpreting training system, that was developed by the author, and to some extent deal with his views on translatology as a science and the interpreting process itself.

This diploma thesis examines speech rate in three different speech styles - in reading, prepared semi-spontaneous monologue and consecutive interpreting from English into Czech. In the first part of the thesis we summarize previous research, define several types of speech rate, pauses and all three speech styles. In the second part, dedicated to empirical research, we first describe the material and speakers, and then we continue with information about recording and processing of the recordings, mainly the two ways of segmentation into inter-pause units. The results are summarized in three sub-chapters; one looks at speaking rate, the next deals with articulation rate and the last one is dedicated to pauses. The last subchapter in the Results chapter compares our findings with both Czech and foreign research into the topic. Altogether we analysed recordings of four female speakers (two students and two prefessional interpreters) in three speech styles. In each of the styles we calculated speaking rate of the whole text, speaking rate of four linear parts (introduction, main part 1, main part 2 and conclusion) and articulation rate of one chosen unit from each linear part. Our results suggest that the highest speaking rate and articulation rate are in reading; semi-spontaneous speech is somewhat...

(in English) The thesis looks at interpreter's notes that are taken during consecutive interpreting. The thesis focuses on note-taking of numbers and links, two elements that are generally recommended to write down. The theoretical part briefly summarizes information about the topic and looks at the note-taking handbook by Andrew Gillies (2017). Based on the thesis of Kateřina Matrasová (2012), the empirical part presents two experiments to find out if numbers and links are captured. The experiments were carried out on two groups of students from the Institute of Translation Studies at the Faculty of Arts, Charles University: 9 students from the 3rd year of the BA study programme English for Intercultural Communication and 6 students from the 2nd year of the follow-up MA study programme Interpreting: Czech and English. The analysis of the students' notes in the 1st experiment shows that in total the students noted down correctly 20 out of 25 numbers reaching an 80 per cent success rate. The MA students had better results (an 88 per cent success rate compared to 75 per cent success rate of the BA students). It can be seen that all the students had a system of noting numbers and that this system proved helpful to them. The 2nd experiment indicates that the students are less likely to capture links in...

The research aimed to investigate the process and the product of interpreter's self-reflection defining linguistic and non-linguistic strategies of consecutive interpreting. The work consists of three parts. The first part expounds on models and theories of interpreting process. The second part of the work deals with the phenomenon of consecutive interpreting, the processes involved in it and self-reflection as a tool for improvement of one's skills. In the third part of this work the procedure and the results of reflective analysis are provided. The empirical part of the research revealed that students thinking was oriented not only towards strategies but also towards knowledge and abilities, mistakes and their reasons, and self-assessment. student interpreters most often use compensation strategies, in particular skipping and non-linguistic strategies only accompany linguistic ones. / Šiuo darbu buvo siekiama ištirti vertėjo žodžiu savirefleksijos procesą ir rezultatą, identifikuojantį lingvistines ir ne lingvistines nuosekliojo vertimo žodžiu strategijas. Mokslinio darbo teorinėje dalyje pateikiama mokslinė medžiaga apie nuosekliojo vertimo žodžiu proceso modelius bei teorijas, apie nuosekliojo vertimo ypatybes, mąstymo procesus, savirefleksijos procesą. Pristatomos strategijų klasifikacijos bei jų samprata nuosekliojo vertimo žodžiu procese. Praktinėje dalyje aprašoma fenomenografinio tyrimo eiga ir analizuojami rezultatai. Analizės metu išaiškėjo, kad vertimo studentų mąstymas nukreiptas ne tik į strategijas bet ir į žinias,gebėjimus, klaidas, jų priežastis bei savianalizę. Dažniausiai naudotos kompensacinės strategijos. Ne lingvistinės strategijos tik akomponuoja lingvistinėms strategijoms.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(人間・環境学) / 甲第22018号 / 人博第908号 / 2019||人博||908(吉田南総合図書館) / 京都大学大学院人間・環境学研究科共生人間学専攻 / (主査)准教授 中森 誉之, 教授 水野 尚之, 准教授 PETERSON,Mark / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Human and Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

In der Dolmetschwissenschaft wird die Stenografie größtenteils mit Skepsis betrachtet. Während es einzelne Stimmen gibt, die einen möglichen Nutzen derselben beim Notationsvorgang des Konsekutivdolmetschens sehen, wird das Stenografieren in diesem Rahmen insgesamt kritisch gesehen. Weit verbreitet ist die Ansicht, dass eine Kurzschrift lediglich beim Erstellen von Wortprotokollen eingesetzt werden sollte. Diese Arbeit geht der Frage auf den Grund, inwiefern die Stenografie, konkret die Deutsche Einheitskurzschrift (DEK), dennoch beim Notationsvorgang des konsekutiven Dolmetschens hilfreich sein kann. Als Grundlage hierfür dient die Analyse der Verdolmetschungen einer Reihe kurzer Reden, die über den Zeitraum von etwa einem Jahr im Selbstversuch unter ausschließlicher oder anteiliger Verwendung der DEK-Vorstufe Notizschrift und der Verkehrsschrift konsekutiv verdolmetscht wurden. Die Schwierigkeit der Reden wurde dabei schrittweise gesteigert. Der Fokus der Analyse liegt auf dem Sprachenpaar Englisch-Deutsch, wobei auch Besonderheiten für Spanisch-Deutsch aufgezeigt werden. Betrachtet werden hierbei sowohl die Notizen selbst als auch die Dolmetschleistung. Die Originalreden können über das Speech Repository der Europäischen Kommission aufgerufen werden. Es konnte abgeleitet werden, dass die Stenografie eine wertvolle Ergänzung für die Notation sein kann, wenn sie in Kombination mit anderen bekannten Notizentechniken angewendet wird. Eine frühzeitige Vermittlung der DEK in der Laufbahn von Dolmetscher:innen ist dabei als sinnvoll anzusehen, damit diese früh in ein individuell zu entwickelndes System eingebunden werden kann.:Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 1 2 Kurzüberblick Konferenzdolmetschen 3 2.1 Einführung in das Konsekutivdolmetschen 5 2.2 Einsatzbereiche beim Konsekutivdolmetschen 7 3 Einführung in die Stenografie 9 3.1 Was ist und woher kommt Stenografie? 9 3.1.1 Anfänge 10 3.1.2 Entwicklung stenografischer Systeme in Europa 11 3.1.2.1 England 12 3.1.2.2 Romanischer Sprachraum 13 3.1.2.3 Deutschland 15 3.1.3 Die Deutsche Einheitskurzschrift (DEK) 18 3.1.4 Stenografie heute 19 3.2 Grundlagen der DEK 21 3.2.1 Stufe 1 – Notizschrift 24 3.2.2 Stufe 2 – Verkehrsschrift 25 3.2.3 Stufe 3 – Eilschrift 27 3.2.4 Stufe 4 – Redeschrift 29 3.2.5 Zusammenhänge 31 4 Übersicht zur Notation 32 4.1 Grundlagen der Notizentechnik 33 4.2 Gedächtnis und Notation 35 4.3 Notationssystem nach Gillies 38 4.4 Notationssystem nach Matyssek 41 4.5 Mögliche Anwendung der Stenografie 44 5 Stenografie im Selbstversuch 46 5.1 Versuchsaufbau 46 5.1.1 Zeitlicher Rahmen 48 5.1.2 Sprachrichtungen 49 5.1.3 Verwendetes Stenografiesystem 49 5.2 Auswertung 50 5.2.1 Kriterien für die Auswertung 51 5.2.2 Auswertung Sprachenpaar Englisch, Deutsch 52 5.2.2.1 Deutsch-Englisch 52 5.2.2.2 Englisch-Deutsch 77 5.2.3 Ergänzungen Sprachenpaar Spanisch, Deutsch 94 5.2.3.1 Deutsch-Spanisch 94 5.2.3.2 Spanisch-Deutsch 104 5.3 Bedeutung für Notation und Lehre 111 5.3.1 Stenografie als Alternative zur klassischen Notizentechnik 111 5.3.2 Stenografie als Ergänzungsmöglichkeit bei der Notation 112 5.3.3 Stenografieunterricht für Dolmetschstudierende 113 6. Schlussbetrachtung 116 Literaturverzeichnis 117 Anhang i Anhang I: Material zu einem Gespräch mit Dr. Roth vom 16.03.2022 i Anhang Ia: Transkript zu Gesprächsauszügen vom 16.03.2022 i Anhang Ib: Einverständniserklärung zur Verwendung des Transkripts xix Anhang II: Elektronischer Datenträger xx Eidesstattliche Erklärung / In interpreting studies, there is considerable scepticism about the use of shorthand. While some researchers do see a possible benefit in shorthand when applied in consecutive interpreting, the vast majority is not recommending its use. The opinion that shorthand should only be used when preparing verbatim minutes is widely spread. This paper investigates to what extent shorthand, more precisely, the DEK (German Unified Shorthand), could still be of use in consecutive note-taking and thus, interpreting. The underlying analysis is based on several short speeches that were interpreted consecutively by the author over a period of approximately a year, while exclusively or partly using shorthand for note-taking. The analysis is mainly based on the so-called note-taking style (Notizschrift) which is a preliminary stage of the first official level of shorthand: correspondence style (Verkehrsschrift). The level of difficulty of the speeches was gradually increased over time. The focus is on the English-German language pair, although there are some particularities mentioned for Spanish-German as well. The notes themselves and the respective interpreting results form the basis of the analysis. The original speeches can be found in the Speech Repository of the European Commission. It was found that shorthand can indeed be a valuable complement to other note-taking techniques when used together with them. Therefore, it should be taught relatively early during an interpreter’s career to avoid having to later fit it in with an already existing system that each interpreter develops individually.:Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 1 2 Kurzüberblick Konferenzdolmetschen 3 2.1 Einführung in das Konsekutivdolmetschen 5 2.2 Einsatzbereiche beim Konsekutivdolmetschen 7 3 Einführung in die Stenografie 9 3.1 Was ist und woher kommt Stenografie? 9 3.1.1 Anfänge 10 3.1.2 Entwicklung stenografischer Systeme in Europa 11 3.1.2.1 England 12 3.1.2.2 Romanischer Sprachraum 13 3.1.2.3 Deutschland 15 3.1.3 Die Deutsche Einheitskurzschrift (DEK) 18 3.1.4 Stenografie heute 19 3.2 Grundlagen der DEK 21 3.2.1 Stufe 1 – Notizschrift 24 3.2.2 Stufe 2 – Verkehrsschrift 25 3.2.3 Stufe 3 – Eilschrift 27 3.2.4 Stufe 4 – Redeschrift 29 3.2.5 Zusammenhänge 31 4 Übersicht zur Notation 32 4.1 Grundlagen der Notizentechnik 33 4.2 Gedächtnis und Notation 35 4.3 Notationssystem nach Gillies 38 4.4 Notationssystem nach Matyssek 41 4.5 Mögliche Anwendung der Stenografie 44 5 Stenografie im Selbstversuch 46 5.1 Versuchsaufbau 46 5.1.1 Zeitlicher Rahmen 48 5.1.2 Sprachrichtungen 49 5.1.3 Verwendetes Stenografiesystem 49 5.2 Auswertung 50 5.2.1 Kriterien für die Auswertung 51 5.2.2 Auswertung Sprachenpaar Englisch, Deutsch 52 5.2.2.1 Deutsch-Englisch 52 5.2.2.2 Englisch-Deutsch 77 5.2.3 Ergänzungen Sprachenpaar Spanisch, Deutsch 94 5.2.3.1 Deutsch-Spanisch 94 5.2.3.2 Spanisch-Deutsch 104 5.3 Bedeutung für Notation und Lehre 111 5.3.1 Stenografie als Alternative zur klassischen Notizentechnik 111 5.3.2 Stenografie als Ergänzungsmöglichkeit bei der Notation 112 5.3.3 Stenografieunterricht für Dolmetschstudierende 113 6. Schlussbetrachtung 116 Literaturverzeichnis 117 Anhang i Anhang I: Material zu einem Gespräch mit Dr. Roth vom 16.03.2022 i Anhang Ia: Transkript zu Gesprächsauszügen vom 16.03.2022 i Anhang Ib: Einverständniserklärung zur Verwendung des Transkripts xix Anhang II: Elektronischer Datenträger xx Eidesstattliche Erklärung

The present thesis focuses on semiotic aspects of note-taking in consecutive interpreting, in particular with respect to the process of semiosis and factors influencing the interpreters' conception of their notes. Chapter 1 mentions the basic features of note-taking in order to trace its semiotic characteristics in the following parts of the thesis. In Chapter 2, the notes as a specific semiotic system are briefly discussed within the framework of the second Peircean trichotomy of signs (cases of iconicity, indexicality and symbolicity are demonstrated) and in terms of their function, productivity and spatial settings. After these general considerations, Chapter 3 introduces the main theoretical approaches to the technique of note-taking (principally those of the Geneva and Heidelberg schools) including the issues of the languages involved in interpreting or the nature of signs. As the accent is on the process of semiosis (apprehension of signs by interpreters, generating signs according to the meaning of the speech and searching for the motivation for the interpreters' concrete choices of signs and their form), the chapter lists some basic signs and methods well- tested by practitioners. The signs are also analysed in terms of their origin and possibilities of expansion (composition, derivation...