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No / Glass-ionomer cements (GICs) have been widely used for over forty years, because of their desirable properties in dentistry. The most important advantages of the GICs are associated with their ability to release long-term antimicrobial agents. However, GICs used as restorative materials have still lots of challenges due to their secondary caries and low mechanical properties. Recent studies showed that the fluoride-releasing activity of conventional GICs is inadequate for effectual antibacterial conservation in many cases. Therefore, many efforts have been proposed to modify the antibacterial features of GICs in order to prevent the secondary caries. Particularly, for achieving this goal GICs were incorporated into various biomaterials possessing antibacterial activities. The scope of this review is to assess systematically the extant researches addressing the antibacterial modifications in GICs in order to provide with an authoritative, at the same time in-depth understanding of controlled antibacterial release in this class of biomaterials. It also gives a whole perspective on the future developments of GICs and challenges related to antibacterial GICs.

The purpose of this project was to fabricate biodegradable ophthalmic inserts for controlled delivery of pilocarpine and evaluate them by both in-vitro and in-vivo studies. Emphasis was placed on the use of an inexpensive material as a drug carrier and on the ease of fabrication of the device. Based on these criteria, absorbable gelatin was selected to fabricate a matrix system. Absorbable gelatin can be obtained by either thermal treatment or chemical crosslinking of gelatin. In the first part of this project, we fabricated an insert using Gelfoamᴿ, an absorbable gelatin sponge obtained by thermal treatment. A prolonged in-vitro release of pilocarpine from the device was achieved through pharmaceutical modification by embedding a retardant in the pores. The devices impregnated with polyethylene glycol monostearate (PMS) and cetyl esters wax (CEW) were found to be most effective. The in-vivo evaluation of the devices indicated that pharmaceutical modification of Gelfoamᴿ is an effective means of improving the biological activity of pilocarpine without altering the biodegradability of the biopolymer backbone. The CEW device produces a substantial improvement in drug bioavailability and an increase in the duration of biological effect over that from the two commercial formulations, the eyedrop and the gel. In the second part of the project, we fabricated absorbable gelatin inserts through chemical crosslinking of gelatin. The effect of selected fabrication variables on profiles of the in-vitro release of pilocarpine and the dynamic water uptake by the crosslinked gelatin devices was investigated. These results were further substantiated by the measurement of the degree of crosslinking of gelatin. The in-vivo study indicated that the modification of the structure of gelatin by crosslinking is another simple and effective way of improving bioavailability and extending the duration of effect of pilocarpine incorporated in the biopolymeric device. In addition, altering the degree of crosslinking of gelatin allows a variation of the biodegradation time of the polymer.

Graduation date: 2003

Graduation date: 1996

The topical application of many substances, including drugs, enzymes, moisturizers and fragrances, contributes largely to the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. These components are often volatile in nature and dissipate in a matter of hours. When considering the different types of slow release systems, an overwhelming variety of these systems is available. Each one of the systems is unique in a way, and is designed to perform a particular function, whether it facilitates the controlled release of an active into the body via the skin surface (transdermal delivery) or whether it reduces the rate of loss of an active from the skin surface to the surrounding environment. For the purpose of this study, a previously existing fixative formulation which is believed to reduce the rate of loss of an active component to the environment, through film formation on the skin surface, was investigated. Alternative ingredients or components were incorporated together with the original fixative formulation ingredients into an experimental design which investigates the effect of each group of the components present. 18 formulations with various concentrations of the components within the groups and specified upper and lower limits for each component were formulated. The fixative properties of the formulations were analysed through the incorporation of a fixed amount of a simple fragrance molecule, 4- methoxybenzaldehyde, into each formulation and evaporation studies were conducted in an environmental room at 28±1° C over a period of 5 hours followed by gas chromatography analysis and finally data analyses using statistical methods. The most efficient fixative formulation was established using regression analysis. The fragrance compound in this formulation was found to evaporate at a rate of 0.47 g/L per hour. The least efficient fixative formulation lead to the loss of 0.78 g/L of the fragrance component per hour. From the calculated fragrance concentrations, the rate constant for each individual fixative formulation could be calculated and response surface 8 modelling by backward regression was used in order to determine how each component contributes to the rate of loss of the fragrance compound. Since the sum of the original ingredient and its alternative was constant, each of the original ingredients was coupled directly to its alternative and no conclusion could be made about the contribution of individual components. By increasing the concentration of Hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) 100K and its alternative HPC 140K, while keeping the effects of the other components constant, a decrease in the rate of fragrance loss was observed. The same conclusion could be made when increasing the concentrations of PEG-12 Dimethicone and its alternative cetyl dimethicone (decreases the evaporation rate). An interaction took place between HPC 100K and PEG-12 dimethicone and their alternatives. The negative effect was, however, not as strong as the combined positive effect on the rate of fragrance loss of the individual components HPC and PEG-12 dimethicone. Evidence suggested that the removal of the components polyvinylpyrrolidone and its alternative, polyurethane-32 (Baycusan® C1003), would improve the effectiveness of the fixative formulation in terms of its slow release properties. A confirmation experiment established that the exclusion of these components from the fixative formulation does improve the “slow release” properties thereof. A larger, more intricate design is required to investigate the effect of each one of the individual components and where the sum of the components (original and its alternative) is not constant.

Controlled release formulations deliver an active ingredient over an extended period of time. It is an ideal dosage form for an active ingredient with a short elimination half-life. An active ingredient with a short elimination half-life would be released in small portions over an extended period of time and thus less frequent administration is necessary and this improve patient compliance. Other advantages of these formulations include: decreased side effects, constant drug levels in the blood, improvement in treatment efficiency and reduction in cost of administration. Controlled release beads are formulated in such a way that the active ingredient is embedded in a matrix of insoluble substance like chitosan; the dissolving drug then has to find its way through the pores of the matrix into the surrounding medium. The chitosan matrix swells to form a gel, the drug then has to first dissolve in the matrix and diffuse through the outer surface into the surrounding medium. Chitosan is a biocompatible, biodegradable polymer of natural origin. It has mucoadhesive properties as well as the ability to manipulate the tight junctions in the epithelium membrane and these properties have qualified chitosan as an effective drug carrier in controlled release dosage forms. The effect of a modern controlled release polymer namely Kollidon® SR in combination with chitosan on drug release was investigated. Ketoprofen was chosen as model drug. Ketoprofen is an anti-inflammatory drug that causes gastrointestinal side effects in conventional dosage forms. Ketoprofen has a short elimination half-life of 2.05 ± 0.58 h and this characteristic makes it an ideal candidate for use in a controlled release formulation. The aim of this study was to achieve controlled release and minimize gastrointestinal effects of ketoprofen with chitosan particles. Kollidon® SR was used as polymer because it exhibits pH independent release characteristics and previous studies have shown potential for this combination. Chitosan beads and chitosan-Kollidon® SR beads, as well as chitosan granules and chitosan-Kollidon® SR granules, were prepared and investigated as potential controlled release formulations. Chitosan beads were prepared through the inotropic gelation method using tripolyphosphate as a cross linking agent. Granules were prepared through wet granulation using 2% v/v acetic acid as the granulating fluid or by dissolving ketoprofen in ethanol and Kollidon® SR in 2-pyrrolidinone and using the solution as granulating fluid. Kollidon® SR was added in concentrations of 0.25, 0.5 and 1% (w/v) in the bead formulations and concentrations of 1, 5 and 10% (w/w) in the granule formulations. The beads and granules were characterised by evaluating the following properties: morphology, drug loading and drug release. Additionally swelling and friability tests were also conducted on the bead formulations. The cross linking times of the bead formulations were varied to investigate the effect of cross linking time on the characteristics of the beads. Chitosan-Kollidon® SR beads showed promising results for controlled release formulations and ketoprofen were released over an extended period of time. Drug loading of the plain chitosan beads was 74.65 ± 0.71% and it was noted that the inclusion of Kollidon® SR in the beads resulted in an increase in drug loading and the formulation containing 1% (w/v) Kollidon® SR, cross linked for 30 minutes had a drug loading of 77.38 ± 0.01%. Drug loading of the beads that were cross linked for a longer time were slightly lower which is an indication that some of the drug might have leached out during cross linking. The degree of swelling was promising with some beads swelling to a degree of 2.5 in phosphate buffer solution pH 5.6. Granules had a drug loading between 81.73 ± 1.53% and 93.30 ± 0.50%. Ketoprofen release from the beads and the granules in PBS pH 7.40 at 37 °C over a period of 6 hours were investigated. The bead formulations were more effective in achieving controlled release and it was noted that the bead formulations that was cross linked for a longer period was more efficient in achieving controlled release. The granules did not form a matrix and were not effective in achieving controlled release. Controlled release of ketoprofen were achieved and the results show potential for chitosan-Kollidon® SR formulations in the future. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmaceutics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Monodispersed nanoparticles of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide-co-allylamine (PNIPAM-co-allylamine) and PNIPAM-co-acrylic acid (AA) have been synthesized and used as building blocks for creating three-dimensional networks. The close-packed PNIPAM-co-allylamine and PNIPAM-co-AA nanoparticles were stabilized by covalently bonding neighboring particles at room temperature and at neutral pH; factors which make these networks amicable for drug loading and release. Controlled release studies have been performed on the networks using dextran markers of various molecular weights as model macromolecular drugs. Drug release was quantified under various physical conditions including a range of temperature and molecular weight. These nanoparticle networks have several advantages over the conventional bulk gels for controlling the release of biomolecules with large molecular weights. Monodispersed nanoparticles of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide-co-allylamine (PNIPAM-co-allylamine) can self-assemble into crystals with a lattice spacing on the order of the wavelength of visible light. By initiating the crystallization process near the colloidal crystal melting temperature, while subsequently bonding the PNIPAM-co-allylamine particles below the glass transition temperature, a nanostructured hydrogel has been created. The crystalline hydrogels exhibit iridescent patterns that are tunable by the change of temperature, pH value or even protein concentration. This kind of soft and wet hydrogel with periodic structures may lead to new sensors, devices, and displays operating in aqueous solutions, where most biological and biomedical systems reside. The volume-transition equilibrium and the interaction potential between neutral PINPAM particles dispersed in pure water were investigated by using static and dynamic light-scattering experiments. From the temperature-dependent size and energy parameters, the Sutherland-like potential provides a reasonable representation of the inter-particle potential for PNIPAM particles in swollen and in collapsed phases. An aqueous dispersion of PNIPAM particles can freeze at both high and low temperatures. At low temperatures, the freezing occurs at a large particle volume fraction, similar to that in a hard-sphere system; while at high temperature, the freezing occurs at low particle concentrations, driven by the strong van der Waals attraction due to the collapsed microgel particles. The calculated phase diagram has been confirmed semi-quantitatively by experiments.

A papaína é uma enzima proteolítica extraída do látex das folhas e frutos do mamão verde adulto. Tem sido amplamente utilizada como agente debridante de escaras e cicatrizante de feridas. No entanto, apresenta baixa estabilidade, o que limita seu uso a formulações de manipulação extemporânea ou de curto prazo de validade. O objetivo deste trabalho foi incorporar a papaína em uma matriz polimérica de modo a obter um sistema de liberação controlada do fármaco. Polímeros de aplicação médica foram selecionados e inicialmente avaliados quanto à sua citotoxicidade. Os polímeros não-citotóxicos foram submetidos ao ensaio de irritação cutânea primária in vivo em animais, para avaliar sua capacidade de causar irritação na pele humana. Diversas membranas foram preparadas com os polímeros considerados adequados para aplicação biomédica para incorporação da papaína. As membranas preparadas com 2% de papaína foram selecionadas para serem submetidas ao ensaio de liberação com células de difusão de Franz. Parte dessas membranas foi irradiada com raios γ na dose de 25 kGy para esterilização do material. As membranas irradiadas e não-irradiadas foram testadas simultaneamente a fim de verificar se a radiação γ interferiria no perfil de liberação do fármaco. Os resultados do ensaio de liberação indicaram que o fármaco é liberado de maneira constante durante as 12 horas iniciais do experimento. A análise, por Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura, das membranas irradiadas revelou que as membranas formadas são bastante densas e que seus poros são pequenos. / Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex of green papaya leaves and fruits. It has been widely used as debridant for scars and wound healing agent. However, papain presents low stability, which limits its use to extemporaneous or short shelf life formulations. The purpose of this study was to entrap papain into a polymeric matrix in order to obtain a drug delivery system. Polymers of medical application were selected and firstly assessed for cytotoxicity. Non-cytotoxic polymers were evaluated for primary cutaneous irritation test in vivo in animals, in order to verify if they are able to cause irritation to human skin. Many membranes were prepared with the polymers considered suitable for biomedical application for papain entrapment. Membranes containing 2% papain were selected to be evaluated in the releasing test using Fanz diffusion cells. Some of these membranes were irradiated by γ rays with 25 kGy dose for material sterilization. Irradiated and non-irradiated membranes were simultaneously assessed in order to verify if γ radiation interferes on drug releasing profile. Results obtained from releasing test indicated the drug is released in a constant manner over 12 hours in the beginning of the experiment. Scanning Eletronic Microscopy analysis of the irradiated membranes revealed that membranes are very dense and its pores are small.