The purpose of this study is to study the effect of water quality and quantity of raw water on advanced and conventional treatment processes. We are using data of water quality and quantity to investigate difference of quality of treated water in water treatment plant. Finally we compared items of ware quality ( turbidity, free residual chlorine, total hardness, conductivity, pH, NH3-N) whether passed the Taiwan¡¦s national standard of drinking water or not. We are hoping the treated drinking water will all fit the goal of high quality. Results show that high variation of turbidity was found from May to October in every year. The high turbidity was frequently occurred from 9.9% (2008) to 39.5% (2010). It indicated the worsen trend of water quality of raw water is increased yearly. In all monitoring items of water quality, turbidity, conductivity, NH3-N was greatly influenced in seasons from June to September. The rest items had no significant affect by season¡¦s variation. The removal efficiency in items of water quality of advanced and conventional WTP we found there were high value at hardness and TDS with 49.3% and 43.3% respectively. These items, water quality of treated water (such as turbidity, free residual chlorine, total hardness, conductivity, pH, NH3-N), were all pass the current drinking standard in Taiwan ( i.e., turbidity¡Õ2NTU¡BTDS¡Õ500mg/L¡B6.0¡ÕpH¡Õ8.5¡B0.2mg/L¡Õfree residual chlorine¡Õ1.0mg/L¡BNH3-N¡Õ0.1mg/L ).

The freshwater dinoflagellate species, Ceratium hirundinella (C. hirundinella) possesses unique characteristics, such as a thecal-plate cell covering of cellulose, spines and flagella. Unlike most other algae and cyanobacteria, C. hirundinella cells are relatively large in size (up to 450 μm in length and 50 μm in width). These unique characteristics (e.g. cell covering and flagella) and adaptations (e.g. spines) give the dinoflagellate cells the ability to reduce their sinking rate from the euphotic zone and to migrate easily through the water column. When source water contains high concentrations of C. hirundinella cells, water treatment problems and poor aesthetic water quality can be expected. These water treatment problems may include 1) the disruption of coagulation and flocculation, 2) clogging of sand filters and 3) taste and odour problems when cells penetrate into the final water. In Chapter 9 of this study, a list of operational guidelines (including alert levels) and recommendations to assist managers and operators of plants when C. hirundinella cells are causing water treatment problems. During events of high C. hirundinella concentrations in source water, managers and operators of conventional water treatment plants need strategies to optimize coagulants and unit processes. Thus when source water contains motile nuisance algae, such as C. hirundinella, in moderate or abundant quantities, it is advisable to conduct jar stirring test experiments using both turbidity and total photosynthetic pigment (or chlorophyll-a) analyses as indicators of appropriate coagulant choice and dosages. The aims of this study are summarized as follows:  To optimize coagulants and conventional water treatment processes by implementing relevant algal removal strategies and indicators during jar stirring test experiments,  To investigate the changes in surface charge (known as zeta potential) on C. hirundinella cells before and after adding coagulants as part of the treatment processes,  To investigate the physical and chemical impacts on the morphology of C. hirundinella cells after coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation,  To identify organic compounds that may be responsible for taste and odour problems associated with C. hirundinella,  To investigate the efficiency of pre-chlorination on the removal C. hirundinella cells when dosing various coagulants, and  Give recommendations and operational guidelines relevant for a conventional water treatment plant to improve C. hirundinella removal A combined water treatment system (Phipps and Bird Model), consisting of a six paddle jar test apparatus and six sand filter columns, was used to simulate conventional processes (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and rapid sand filtration). Source water samples containing relatively high C. hirundinella concentrations (> 500 cell/mℓ) were collected from Benoni Lake (26º10’50.40’’S; 28º17’50.11’’ E) in plastic containers and stored as a homogenous sample in a 200 litre container under laboratory conditions (± 22 °C). Samples were collected from the source water as well as after sedimentation (from the supernatant or sludge) to determine turbidity, total photosynthetic pigment analyses (chlorophyll) and for phytoplankton analyses. Flocs (containing C. hirundinella cells) were collected from the sludge or sediment for scanning electron microscopy investigations and to perform zeta potential analyses. Concentrated C. hirundinella samples were frozen at -80 °C according to the proposed sampling protocol for organic compound analyses. Results obtained from this study proved that using the relevant indicators to determine the appropriate coagulant dosages during jar stirring tests may generally improve the removal of problem-causing algae, such as C. hirundinella cells. Improved algal removal efficiencies will subsequently ensure final water with good aesthetic quality. The surface charge (zeta potential) on C. hirundinella cells can be used to evaluate the best coagulation conditions within an operating window of -10 mV to +3 mV when dosing various coagulants. Scanning electron microscopy investigations revealed major damaging effects to C. hirundinella cells when dosing high Ca(OH)2 concentrations. However, when dosing lower Ca(OH)2 concentrations, in combination with organic polymer, better C. hirundinella cell removal efficiencies with less damaging effects to cells was observed. This study also indicated that the pre-chlorination, without causing cell lyses, can be applied to render the highly motile cells immobile which will subsequently assist the coagulation unit process. The aesthetic quality (e.g. tastes and odours) of drinking water may be influenced when C. hirundinella cells release organic material into the water as a result of cell lyses. Organic compounds, such as fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids can lead to taste and odour problems which associate with the presence of C. hirundinella. Organic compounds also serve as precursors for the formation of harmful chlorine by-products formed during chlorination. / PhD (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The freshwater dinoflagellate species, Ceratium hirundinella (C. hirundinella) possesses unique characteristics, such as a thecal-plate cell covering of cellulose, spines and flagella. Unlike most other algae and cyanobacteria, C. hirundinella cells are relatively large in size (up to 450 μm in length and 50 μm in width). These unique characteristics (e.g. cell covering and flagella) and adaptations (e.g. spines) give the dinoflagellate cells the ability to reduce their sinking rate from the euphotic zone and to migrate easily through the water column. When source water contains high concentrations of C. hirundinella cells, water treatment problems and poor aesthetic water quality can be expected. These water treatment problems may include 1) the disruption of coagulation and flocculation, 2) clogging of sand filters and 3) taste and odour problems when cells penetrate into the final water. In Chapter 9 of this study, a list of operational guidelines (including alert levels) and recommendations to assist managers and operators of plants when C. hirundinella cells are causing water treatment problems. During events of high C. hirundinella concentrations in source water, managers and operators of conventional water treatment plants need strategies to optimize coagulants and unit processes. Thus when source water contains motile nuisance algae, such as C. hirundinella, in moderate or abundant quantities, it is advisable to conduct jar stirring test experiments using both turbidity and total photosynthetic pigment (or chlorophyll-a) analyses as indicators of appropriate coagulant choice and dosages. The aims of this study are summarized as follows:  To optimize coagulants and conventional water treatment processes by implementing relevant algal removal strategies and indicators during jar stirring test experiments,  To investigate the changes in surface charge (known as zeta potential) on C. hirundinella cells before and after adding coagulants as part of the treatment processes,  To investigate the physical and chemical impacts on the morphology of C. hirundinella cells after coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation,  To identify organic compounds that may be responsible for taste and odour problems associated with C. hirundinella,  To investigate the efficiency of pre-chlorination on the removal C. hirundinella cells when dosing various coagulants, and  Give recommendations and operational guidelines relevant for a conventional water treatment plant to improve C. hirundinella removal A combined water treatment system (Phipps and Bird Model), consisting of a six paddle jar test apparatus and six sand filter columns, was used to simulate conventional processes (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and rapid sand filtration). Source water samples containing relatively high C. hirundinella concentrations (> 500 cell/mℓ) were collected from Benoni Lake (26º10’50.40’’S; 28º17’50.11’’ E) in plastic containers and stored as a homogenous sample in a 200 litre container under laboratory conditions (± 22 °C). Samples were collected from the source water as well as after sedimentation (from the supernatant or sludge) to determine turbidity, total photosynthetic pigment analyses (chlorophyll) and for phytoplankton analyses. Flocs (containing C. hirundinella cells) were collected from the sludge or sediment for scanning electron microscopy investigations and to perform zeta potential analyses. Concentrated C. hirundinella samples were frozen at -80 °C according to the proposed sampling protocol for organic compound analyses. Results obtained from this study proved that using the relevant indicators to determine the appropriate coagulant dosages during jar stirring tests may generally improve the removal of problem-causing algae, such as C. hirundinella cells. Improved algal removal efficiencies will subsequently ensure final water with good aesthetic quality. The surface charge (zeta potential) on C. hirundinella cells can be used to evaluate the best coagulation conditions within an operating window of -10 mV to +3 mV when dosing various coagulants. Scanning electron microscopy investigations revealed major damaging effects to C. hirundinella cells when dosing high Ca(OH)2 concentrations. However, when dosing lower Ca(OH)2 concentrations, in combination with organic polymer, better C. hirundinella cell removal efficiencies with less damaging effects to cells was observed. This study also indicated that the pre-chlorination, without causing cell lyses, can be applied to render the highly motile cells immobile which will subsequently assist the coagulation unit process. The aesthetic quality (e.g. tastes and odours) of drinking water may be influenced when C. hirundinella cells release organic material into the water as a result of cell lyses. Organic compounds, such as fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids can lead to taste and odour problems which associate with the presence of C. hirundinella. Organic compounds also serve as precursors for the formation of harmful chlorine by-products formed during chlorination. / PhD (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Climate change is a global challenge that requires proactive action from municipalities, companies, and other organizations to prioritize sustainability in their daily operations. In the past few decades, life cycle assessment (LCA) approach has been successfully applied for environmental assessments in the drinking water sector. In this study, this approach has been used to present a comparative evaluation of the potential environmental impacts associated with nine different process alternatives for future drinking water production at Norrvatten. This study is a pioneering one that explores the potential of LCA as a decision support tool to prioritize and optimize environmental impacts during the operational phase in Swedish drinking water production. The nine alternatives are designed for the year 2050 to meet the average daily demand of 208 MLD for the 14 municipalities in the northern Stockholm region that Norrvatten supplies with drinking water. Out of the nine alternatives, the alternative based on direct filtration of raw water on nanofiltration membranes came out as the most environmentally friendly solution due to the use of renewable electricity from hydro and wind power. The results indicate that the potential environmental impacts are dominated by the use of chemicals in all alternatives, which in turn depends on the energy sources used for chemical production that are mostly dominated by fossil-based non-renewable sources. The impacts due to transportation and energy consumption are relatively less in Swedish drinking water production. Moreover, filtration through granulated activated carbon (GAC) is the most environmentally damaging treatment step, but regeneration of saturated GAC induces positive impacts in all alternatives. Among environmental impact categories, categories related to fine particulate matter formation; global warming, human carcinogenic toxicity, and human non-carcinogenic toxicity are the most significant in all alternatives. Several of the treatment technologies included in the nine alternatives, such as Nanofiltration, have only been tested on a pilot scale and have not been used for drinking water production at Norrvatten. So this study should be followed up and supplemented with better representative inventory data relevant to the Swedish context in order to contribute more effectively in making the future Swedish drinking water production more sustainable and environmentally friendly. Also, this study is based on the most recently available data that may not be valid in 2050 and the latest trends to substitute non-renewable energy sources with renewable sources may reduce the impacts due to chemical production and transportation in the future. Moreover, this LCA study does not include any aspects of water quality and treatment costs. Hence, while comparing different alternatives, the quality of the treated water and its production cost must also be taken into account. / Klimatförändringar är en global utmaning som kräver proaktivt agerande från kommuner, företag och andra organisationer för att prioritera hållbarhet i sin dagliga verksamhet. Under de senaste decennierna har livscykelanalys (LCA) använts för miljöbedömningar inom VA-sektorn. I denna studie har detta tillvägagångssätt använts för att presentera en jämförande utvärdering av den potentiella miljöpåverkan som är förknippad med den framtida dricksvattenproduktionen vid Norrvatten. Med hjälp av LCA så jämförs nio olika processalternativ för den framtida produktionen och kan på så sätt bidra till att prioritera och optimera processval utifrån miljösynpunkt. De nio alternativen är utformade för år 2050 för att tillgodose den genomsnittliga dagliga efterfrågan på 208 MLD för de 14 kommuner i norra Stockholmsregionen som Norrvatten försörjer med dricksvatten. Av nio alternativ kom alternativet baserat på direkt filtrering av råvatten på nanofiltreringsmembran som den mest miljövänliga lösningen på grund av användningen av förnybar el från vatten- och vindkraft. Resultaten indikerar att de potentiella miljöeffekterna domineras av användning av kemikalier i samtliga alternativ, vilket i i sin tur beror på de energikällor som används för kemikalieproduktion domineras av fossilbaserade energibärare. Effekterna på grund av transport och energiförbrukning är relativt låg i svensk dricksvattenproduktion. Filtrering genom granulerat aktivt kol (GAC) det mest miljöbelastande behandlingssteget, men regenerering av mättad GAC ger positiva effekter i alla alternativ. Bland kategorier för miljöpåverkan så är kategorier relaterade till bildning av fina partiklar; global uppvärmning, mänsklig cancerframkallande toxicitet och mänsklig icke-cancerogen toxicitet de viktigaste i alla alternativ. Flera av de behandlingstekniker som ingår i de nio alternativen, såsom Nanofiltration, har enbarts testats i pilotskala och inte använts för dricksvattenproduktion vid Norrvatten. Så denna studie bör följas upp och kompletteras med data som är relevanta för förhållanden vid Vättern Denna studie baseras också på tillgängliga data som kanske inte är giltiga 2050 och de senaste trenderna för att ersätta icke förnybara energikällor med förnybara källor som kan minska effekterna på grund av kemisk produktion och transport i framtiden. Dessutom innehåller denna LCA-studie inga aspekter av vattenkvalitet och behandlingskostnader.. Vid jämförelse av olika alternativ måste även kvaliteten på det behandlade vattnet och dess produktionskostnad beaktas.