The flora of New Zealand has evolved largely in the absence of terrestrial mammals, the predominant frugivore guilds being birds and reptiles. The evolution of divergent fruit traits in New Zealand may be a consequence of different selection pressure by these two guilds, and two contrasting putative dispersal syndromes have been proposed for New Zealand fleshy fruited plants. Coprosma (Rubiaceae: subtribe Coprosminae) is a speciose and morphologically diverse genus, which is distributed throughout the South Pacific and which also produces variably coloured drupes. It was selected as a model genus to investigate the evolution of fruit traits within this context. For this purpose, a molecular phylogeny for the subtribe Coprosminae and Coprosma was inferred using parsimony, likelihood and split decomposition analysis on sequences from the 16rps intron of cpDNA and ETS and ITS region of nrDNA. Up to 32 species were included in the subtribal analyses, whilst 53 species of Coprosma were used in subgeneric studies. The basis for the variety of fruit colours seen in New Zealand was determined using histology and pigment extractions. To test the assumption that fruit traits among species evolved in concert under selection from frugivore guilds, fruit shape, size and nutrient composition were determined in order to test predictions that these would co-vary with fruit colour. In the Coprosminae, fleshy drupes have arisen from dry fruited schizocarps and with two possible reversals to semi-dry drupes. Within Coprosma, fruit colour was found to be evolutionarily labile and varied both among and within lineages, particularly within two main groups where fruit colour had shifted from orange to blue and white, or red, pink and black colours respectively. The evolution of novel (non-orange) fruit colours was restricted to New Zealand, as was the small-leaved, divaricate growth form, the combination of which has been associated with a putative reptile dispersal syndrome. Several trans-oceanic dispersals out of New Zealand were also inferred from the phylogeny, these extending into Australia, New Guinea and Hawai�i. In these instances, fruit colour did not appear change markedly after establishment in a new country. Within New Zealand, fruit sizes were found to vary with colour as predicted, although the majority of species produced small (< 8 mm), elliptical fruits. There was no clear association between fruit colour and fruit nutrient composition. It would appear that these small, succulent, carbohydrate-rich and lipid-poor fruits cater to a wide range of generalist frugivores. The variety of fruit colours in Coprosma stemmed from qualitative and quantitative differences in carotenoid and anthocyanin composition. The genetic basis for the control of these pathways is currently unknown, but it is assumed that a few regulatory genes can control a substantial amount of phenotypic variation. Considering the evolutionary history of Coprosma, it would appear that a history of recent and rapid speciation, hybridisation and reticulate evolution may have increased the tempo of fruit colour evolution in the genus.

The flora of New Zealand has evolved largely in the absence of terrestrial mammals, the predominant frugivore guilds being birds and reptiles. The evolution of divergent fruit traits in New Zealand may be a consequence of different selection pressure by these two guilds, and two contrasting putative dispersal syndromes have been proposed for New Zealand fleshy fruited plants. Coprosma (Rubiaceae: subtribe Coprosminae) is a speciose and morphologically diverse genus, which is distributed throughout the South Pacific and which also produces variably coloured drupes. It was selected as a model genus to investigate the evolution of fruit traits within this context. For this purpose, a molecular phylogeny for the subtribe Coprosminae and Coprosma was inferred using parsimony, likelihood and split decomposition analysis on sequences from the 16rps intron of cpDNA and ETS and ITS region of nrDNA. Up to 32 species were included in the subtribal analyses, whilst 53 species of Coprosma were used in subgeneric studies. The basis for the variety of fruit colours seen in New Zealand was determined using histology and pigment extractions. To test the assumption that fruit traits among species evolved in concert under selection from frugivore guilds, fruit shape, size and nutrient composition were determined in order to test predictions that these would co-vary with fruit colour. In the Coprosminae, fleshy drupes have arisen from dry fruited schizocarps and with two possible reversals to semi-dry drupes. Within Coprosma, fruit colour was found to be evolutionarily labile and varied both among and within lineages, particularly within two main groups where fruit colour had shifted from orange to blue and white, or red, pink and black colours respectively. The evolution of novel (non-orange) fruit colours was restricted to New Zealand, as was the small-leaved, divaricate growth form, the combination of which has been associated with a putative reptile dispersal syndrome. Several trans-oceanic dispersals out of New Zealand were also inferred from the phylogeny, these extending into Australia, New Guinea and Hawai�i. In these instances, fruit colour did not appear change markedly after establishment in a new country. Within New Zealand, fruit sizes were found to vary with colour as predicted, although the majority of species produced small (< 8 mm), elliptical fruits. There was no clear association between fruit colour and fruit nutrient composition. It would appear that these small, succulent, carbohydrate-rich and lipid-poor fruits cater to a wide range of generalist frugivores. The variety of fruit colours in Coprosma stemmed from qualitative and quantitative differences in carotenoid and anthocyanin composition. The genetic basis for the control of these pathways is currently unknown, but it is assumed that a few regulatory genes can control a substantial amount of phenotypic variation. Considering the evolutionary history of Coprosma, it would appear that a history of recent and rapid speciation, hybridisation and reticulate evolution may have increased the tempo of fruit colour evolution in the genus.

Plant-based defence mutualisms involve aspects of plant morphology that influence the performance of plant parasites, their natural enemies and trophic interactions. Leaf domatia, small indentations on the underside of leaves, can be structurally complex, and are often inhabited by potentially beneficial mites and other arthropods. Plant morphological traits such as domatia that enhance mutualistic relationships may result in increased plant growth rates, and reproductive success. New Zealand supports ~60 plant species that have domatia, the most speciose genus being Coprosma. The aim of this thesis was to examine factors that affect the production of leaf domatia and their relationship with foliar mite assemblages. The three main objectives of this thesis are: First, to investigate the production of foliar domatia and their susceptibility to limited resources, particularly to carbon availability. Second, to test if domatia are inducible structures during leaf ontogeny in the presence of foliar mites and/or fungi. Finally, to explore the effect of domatia availability on foliar mite assemblages on leaves with and without resident mites. This thesis tested the stated objectives using C. lucida, C. ciliata, C. foetidissima and C. rotundifolia, with a combination of field investigations and controlled manipulative experiments. The cost of domatia production was investigated using two field surveys and two controlled experiments. Under natural conditions the relationship between leaf morphology and domatia were measured in situ and across an altitudinal gradient. The experimental manipulations used carbon and nutrient stress, induced by temperature, light and fertilizer application. The second objective was experimentally tested under field conditions by manipulating foliar mites and fungal densities on C. rotundifolia. The third objective was investigated by manipulating domatia availability on C. lucida shrubs across three different vegetation types. Under field conditions, the number of domatia per leaf was associated with leaf morphology in C. lucida and C. foetidissima, but not C. rotundifolia. Foliar carbon showed a positive, but weak association with domatia production in C. foetidissima and C. ciliata. Altitudinal induced-carbon stress on domatia production was ambiguous. Domatia production in C. foetidissima was positively associated to altitude in field survey (1), and negatively associated in the second survey, with no correlation found between carbon and altitude. Experimental C. rotundifolia shrubs held under elevated night-time temperatures showed a 2.5 fold increase in respiration, a 34% to 91% decrease in daily carbon gain, and 38% decrease in domatia per leaf mass. Domatia production showed no significant differences under nutrient stress. The results showed little evidence to support a role for induction of domatia. Domatia production in new leaves was similar across all experimental treatments. Diverse vegetation types supported 60% higher mite species. Leaves with domatia supported ~22 to 66% higher mite densities, greater colonisation success and more diverse mite assemblages, than those without domatia. In the pastoral vegetation, the absence of predatory mites on experimental shrubs resulted in no differences in fungivorous mite densities regardless of domatia availability. Plant investment in foliar domatia appears associated with the number of available sites on the leaf under field conditions. The role of carbon availability during leaf ontogeny suggests a complex and highly variable association with domatia production. Domatia are constitutive defence structures that influence mite assemblages, mediating both beneficial and antagonistic relationships. This thesis concludes that domatia are in part, carbon-based non-inducible structures that influence mite assemblages, plant-mite and mite-mite interactions, and increase the probability of successful colonisation.