Stress is an ongoing and increasing problem at a societal and individual level. This systematic review aims to evaluate which effects breathwork has on stress in a healthy population. A literature search was done on Scopus, and Web of Science for peer-reviewed, published, and original research. In the search process, it was decided to include psychological and physiological assessments due to the narrow topic. Threestudies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. The outcome measurements included were heart-rate variability (HRV) which measures the activity in the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and salivary cortisol to measure cortisol as a biomarker of psychological stress, as well as the questionnaires PSS, PANAS, and STAI. There are many different breathwork techniques, in this review the focus is oncontrolled, slow deep breathing techniques e.g. diaphragmatic breathing, resonance breathing, and cyclic sighing. All three studies showed significant improvement in stress in the breathing groups. These findings suggest that breathwork can be valuable in reducing stress in healthy individuals. Furthermore, more research is needed before conclusions on the general population can be drawn.

In zahlreichen lebenswichtigen Bereichen haben sich Biosensoren als unverzichtbare Messgeräte erwiesen. Der Nachweis von spezifischen Molekülen im Körper für eine frühzeitige Krankheitserkennung erfordert empfindliche und zugleich zuverlässige Messmethoden. Ein rasantes Fortschreiten im Bereich der Nanotechnologie führt dabei zur Entwicklung von Materialien mit neuen Eigenschaften, und damit verbunden, auch zu innovativen Anwendungsmöglichkeiten im Bereich der Biosensorik. Das Zusammenspiel von Nanotechnologie und Sensortechnik gewährleistet die Konstruktion von Sensoren mit empfindlicheren Nachweisgrenzen und kürzeren Reaktionszeiten. Die Option zur Integration und Miniaturisierung stellen daher einen erfolgreichen Einsatz in direkter Patientennähe in Aussicht, sodass Nanobiosensoren die Brücke zwischen Laborddiagnostik und Standardanwendungen schließen können. Die folgende Arbeit widmet sich der Anwendung von nanostrukturierten Biosensoren für einen empfindlichen und markierungsfreien Nachweis von Zielmolekülen. Ein Hauptaugenmerk liegt dabei auf der kontinuierlichen Messung von Biomarkern mit kompakten Auslesesystemen, die eine direkte Signalmeldung und somit eine Detektion in Echtzeit ermöglichen. Dies erfordert zunächst die sorgfältige Funktionalisierung von Sensoroberflächen mit geeigneten DNA-basierten Rezeptoren. Infolgedessen werden beispielhaft verschiedene Sensorsysteme, Analyten und Charakterisierungsmethoden vorgestellt sowie universelle Strategien für die erfolgreiche Konfiguration von Nanobiosensorplattformen präsentiert. Das erste Anwendungsbeispiel widmet sich einem plasmonischen Biosensor, bei dem vertikal ausgerichtete Gold-Nanoantennen Signale mittels sog. lokalisierter Oberflächenplasmonenresonanz (LSPR) erzeugen. Mit dem Sensor konnte erfolgreich die Immobilisierung, das nachträgliche Blocken sowie die anschließende Hybridisierung von DNA nachgewiesen werden. Mithilfe des LSPR-Sensors wurden gleichzeitig grundlegende Hybridisierungsmechanismen auf nanostrukturierten und planaren Oberflächen verglichen und damit verbunden die einzigartigen optischen Eigenschaften metallischer Nanostrukturen betont. In einem zweiten Anwendungsbeispiel misst ein elektrischer Biosensor kontinuierlich die Konzentration des Stressmarkers Cortisol im menschlichen Speichel. Der direkte, markierungsfreie Nachweis von Cortisol mit Silizium-Nanodraht basierten Feldeffekttransistoren (SiNW FET) wurde anhand zugrunde liegender Ladungsverteilungen innerhalb des entstandenen Rezeptor-Analyte-Komplexes bewertet, sodass ein Nachweis des Analyten innerhalb der sog. Debye-Länge ermöglicht wird. Die erfolgreiche Strategie zur Oberflächenfunktionalisierung im Zusammenspiel mit dem Einsatz von SiNW FETs auf einem tragbaren Messgerät wurde anhand des Cortisolnachweises im Speichel belegt. Ein übereinstimmender Vergleich der gemessenen Corisolkonzentrationen mit Werten, die mit einer kommerziellen Alternative ermittelt wurden, verdeutlichen das Potential der entwickelten Plattform. Zusammenfassend veranschaulichen beide vorgestellten Nanobiosensor-Plattformen die vielseitige und vorteilhafte Leistungsfähigkeit der Systeme für einen kontinuierlichen Nachweis von Biomarkern in Echtzeit und vorzugsweise in Patientennähe.:Kurzfassung I Abstract III Abbreviations and symbols V Content VII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Scope of the thesis 4 1.2 References 6 2 Fundamentals 9 2.1 Biosensors 9 2.2 Influence of nanotechnology on sensor development 10 2.3 Biorecognition elements 12 2.3.1 Biorecognition element: DNA 13 2.3.2 Aptamers 14 2.3.3 Immobilization of receptors 15 2.4 Transducer systems 17 2.4.1 Optical biosensors - surface plasmon resonance 17 2.4.2 Electric Biosensors – Field-effect transistors (FETs) 21 2.5 Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor - MOSFET 21 2.6 Summary 26 2.7 References 27 3 Materials and methods 33 3.1 Plasmonic biosensors based on vertically aligned gold nanoantennas 33 3.1.1 Materials 33 3.1.2 Manufacturing of nanoantenna arrays 34 3.1.3 Surface modification and characterization 35 3.1.4 Measurement setup for detection of analytes 38 3.2 SiNW FET-based real-time monitoring of cortisol 40 3.2.1 Materials 40 3.2.2 Manufacturing of silicon nanowire field effect transistors (SiNW FETs) 42 3.2.3 Integration of SiNW FETs into a portable platform 42 3.2.4 Biomodification and characterization of electronic biosensors SiNW FETs 42 3.2.5 Electric characterization of FETs 47 3.3 References 50 4 Plasmonic DNA biosensor based on vertical arrays of gold nanoantennas 51 4.1 Introduction - Optical biosensors operating by means of LSPR 53 4.2 Biosensing with vertically aligned gold nanoantennas 56 4.2.1 Sensor fabrication, characterization, and integration 56 4.2.2 Integration of microfluidics 58 4.2.3 Immobilization of probe DNA and backfilling 58 4.2.4 Hybridization of complementary DNA strands 62 4.2.5 Surface coverage and hybridization efficiency of DNA 69 4.2.6 Refractive index sensing 72 4.2.7 Backfilling and blocking 73 4.3 Summary 75 4.4 References 77 5 Label-free detection of salivary cortisol with SiNW FETs 83 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Design, integration, and performance of SiNW FETs into a portable platform 89 5.2.1 Structure and electrical characteristics of honeycomb SiNW FETs 89 5.2.2 Integration of SiNW FET into a portable measuring unit 91 5.2.3 Performance of SiNW FET arrays 93 5.3 Detection of biomolecules with SiNW FETs 102 5.3.1 General considerations for biodetection with FETs 102 5.3.2 Sensing aptamers with FETs 103 5.3.3 Biodetection of the analyte cortisol with SiNW FETs 104 5.3.4 Detection of cortisol with SiNW FETs 112 5.4 Summary 119 5.5 References 121 6 Summary and outlook 131 6.1 Summary 131 6.2 Perspectives – toward multiplexed biosensing applications 134 6.3 References 137 Appendix i A.1 Protocols i A.1.1 Functionalization of gold antennas with thiolated DNA i A.1.2 Functionalization of SiO2 with TESPSA and amino-modified receptors i A.1.3 Functionalization with APTES and carboxyl-modified receptors ii A.1.4 Preparation of microfluidic channels via soft lithography ii A.2 Predicted secondary structures iv A.2.1 Secondary structures of 100base pair target without probe-strands iv A.2.2 Secondary structures of 100base pair target with 25 base pair probe-strand x Versicherung xvii Acknowledgments xix List of publications xxi Peer-reviewed publications xxi Publications in preparation xxi Selected international conferences xxii Curriculum Vitae xxiii / Biosensors have proven to be indispensable in numerous vital areas. For example, detecting the presence and concentration of specific biomarkers requires sensitive and reliable measurement methods. Rapid developments in the field of nanotechnology lead to nanomaterials with new properties and associated innovative applications. Thus, nanotechnology has a far-reaching impact on biosensors' development, e.g., delivery of biosensing devices with greater sensitivity, shorter response times, and precise but cost-effective sensor platforms. In addition, nanobiosensors hold high potential for integration and miniaturization and can operate directly at the point of care - serving as a bridge between diagnostics and routine tests. This work focuses on applying nanostructured biosensors for the sensitive and label-free detection of analytes. A distinct aim is the continuous monitoring of biomarkers with compact read-out systems to provide direct, valuable feedback in real-time. The first step in achieving this goal is the adequate functionalization of nanostructured sensor surfaces with suitable receptors to detect analytes of interest. Due to their thermal and chemical stability with the possibility for customizable functionalization, DNA-based receptors are selected. Thereupon, universal strategies for confining nanobiosensor platforms are presented using different sensor systems, analytes, and characterization methods. As a first application, a plasmonic biosensor based on vertically aligned gold nanoantennas tracked the immobilization, blocking, and subsequent hybridization of DNA by means of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). At the same time, the LSPR sensor was used to evaluate fundamental hybridization mechanisms on nanostructured and planar surfaces, emphasizing the unique optical properties of metallic nanostructures. In a second application, an electric sensor based on silicon nanowire field-effect transistors (SiNW FET) monitored the level of the stress marker cortisol in human saliva. Based on evaluating the underlying charge distributions within the resulting receptor-analyte complex of molecules, the detection of cortisol within the Debye length is facilitated. Thus, direct, label-free detection of cortisol in human saliva using SiNW FET was successfully applied to the developed platform and compared to cortisol levels obtained using a commercial alternative. In summary, both presented platforms indicate a highly versatile and beneficial performance of nanobiosensors for continuous detection of biomarkers in real-time and preferably point-of-care (POC).:Kurzfassung I Abstract III Abbreviations and symbols V Content VII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Scope of the thesis 4 1.2 References 6 2 Fundamentals 9 2.1 Biosensors 9 2.2 Influence of nanotechnology on sensor development 10 2.3 Biorecognition elements 12 2.3.1 Biorecognition element: DNA 13 2.3.2 Aptamers 14 2.3.3 Immobilization of receptors 15 2.4 Transducer systems 17 2.4.1 Optical biosensors - surface plasmon resonance 17 2.4.2 Electric Biosensors – Field-effect transistors (FETs) 21 2.5 Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor - MOSFET 21 2.6 Summary 26 2.7 References 27 3 Materials and methods 33 3.1 Plasmonic biosensors based on vertically aligned gold nanoantennas 33 3.1.1 Materials 33 3.1.2 Manufacturing of nanoantenna arrays 34 3.1.3 Surface modification and characterization 35 3.1.4 Measurement setup for detection of analytes 38 3.2 SiNW FET-based real-time monitoring of cortisol 40 3.2.1 Materials 40 3.2.2 Manufacturing of silicon nanowire field effect transistors (SiNW FETs) 42 3.2.3 Integration of SiNW FETs into a portable platform 42 3.2.4 Biomodification and characterization of electronic biosensors SiNW FETs 42 3.2.5 Electric characterization of FETs 47 3.3 References 50 4 Plasmonic DNA biosensor based on vertical arrays of gold nanoantennas 51 4.1 Introduction - Optical biosensors operating by means of LSPR 53 4.2 Biosensing with vertically aligned gold nanoantennas 56 4.2.1 Sensor fabrication, characterization, and integration 56 4.2.2 Integration of microfluidics 58 4.2.3 Immobilization of probe DNA and backfilling 58 4.2.4 Hybridization of complementary DNA strands 62 4.2.5 Surface coverage and hybridization efficiency of DNA 69 4.2.6 Refractive index sensing 72 4.2.7 Backfilling and blocking 73 4.3 Summary 75 4.4 References 77 5 Label-free detection of salivary cortisol with SiNW FETs 83 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Design, integration, and performance of SiNW FETs into a portable platform 89 5.2.1 Structure and electrical characteristics of honeycomb SiNW FETs 89 5.2.2 Integration of SiNW FET into a portable measuring unit 91 5.2.3 Performance of SiNW FET arrays 93 5.3 Detection of biomolecules with SiNW FETs 102 5.3.1 General considerations for biodetection with FETs 102 5.3.2 Sensing aptamers with FETs 103 5.3.3 Biodetection of the analyte cortisol with SiNW FETs 104 5.3.4 Detection of cortisol with SiNW FETs 112 5.4 Summary 119 5.5 References 121 6 Summary and outlook 131 6.1 Summary 131 6.2 Perspectives – toward multiplexed biosensing applications 134 6.3 References 137 Appendix i A.1 Protocols i A.1.1 Functionalization of gold antennas with thiolated DNA i A.1.2 Functionalization of SiO2 with TESPSA and amino-modified receptors i A.1.3 Functionalization with APTES and carboxyl-modified receptors ii A.1.4 Preparation of microfluidic channels via soft lithography ii A.2 Predicted secondary structures iv A.2.1 Secondary structures of 100base pair target without probe-strands iv A.2.2 Secondary structures of 100base pair target with 25 base pair probe-strand x Versicherung xvii Acknowledgments xix List of publications xxi Peer-reviewed publications xxi Publications in preparation xxi Selected international conferences xxii Curriculum Vitae xxiii

L’exposition à l’adversité précoce (AP) a été suggérée comme augmentant le risque de souffrir de psychopathologies associées à une dérégulation du système physiologique de stress ainsi qu’une altération de certains processus cognitifs. Cela dit, les études rapportent des résultats divergents quant à la direction de l’association entre l’AP, la sécrétion de cortisol (la principale hormone de stress chez l’humain) ainsi que la nature de ces dérèglements cognitifs chez l’adulte. Le ‘modèle du cycle de vie’ souligne l’importance de considérer le moment où l’AP a eu lieu pour la première fois (c.-à-d. l’âge minimal d’exposition) en vue d’expliquer ces discordances, considérant que les régions cérébrales importantes à la régulation du stress physiologique et possédant des récepteurs à cortisol (l’hippocampe, l’amygdale et le cortex préfrontal) ne se développent pas au même rythme. En vue de tester le modèle du cycle de vie, le but de cette thèse est d’évaluer le rôle modulateur de l’âge de la première exposition à l’AP sur le système physiologique de stress de même que sur les processus cognitifs soutenus par l’hippocampe, l’amygdale et le cortex préfrontal d’adultes en santé. Précisément, l’objectif de la première étude était de déterminer si l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP modulait le cortisol basal et réactif d’adultes en santé, et ce, en comparaison avec un modèle compétitif : celui de l’accumulation de l’AP, qui considère qu’il est important de considérer le nombre d’AP auquel l’individu a fait face au cours de son développement. Pour ce faire, nous avons mesuré le cortisol basal à l’aide d’échantillons de salive récoltés à la maison de même qu’en réaction à un stresseur psychosocial validé, le Trier Social Stress Test, chez 85 adultes en santé. Nous avons démontré que l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP module bel et bien le cortisol basal et réactif d’adultes en santé, et que ce modèle est un meilleur prédicteur du système physiologique de stress que celui du modèle d’accumulation mesuré via le Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire. En effet, nous avons démontré qu’être exposé pour la première fois à l’AP entre 3 et 7 ans (importante fenêtre de développement de l’amygdale) mène à une réponse cortisolaire au réveil plus élevée ainsi qu’à une réactivité cortisolaire plus faible en comparaison aux adultes ayant été exposés pour la première fois avant 3 ans ou après 7 ans. Ensuite, étant donné que l’hippocampe, l’amygdale et le cortex préfrontal possèdent des récepteurs à cortisol qui sont affectés par la sécrétion chronique d’hormones de stress en lien avec l’AP, l’objectif de la seconde étude était d’évaluer l’effet de l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP sur les processus cognitifs soutenus par ces structures. Pour ce faire, nous avons mesuré la mémoire déclarative (hippocampe), les biais attentionnels vers les informations menaçantes (amygdale) et la régulation émotionnelle (connexion frontoamygdalienne) en fonction de l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP chez les mêmes sujets en santé. Nous avons démontré que les femmes exposées à l’AP pour la première fois après l'âge de 8 ans (fenêtre de développement de la connectivité frontoamygdalienne) présentent un biais attentionnel vers les informations menaçantes. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats de cette thèse soutiennent partiellement le modèle du cycle de vie et offrent une perspective nouvelle sur certaines fenêtres développementales qui semblent plus sensibles aux effets de l’AP sur certaines régions du cerveau responsables de réguler le stress et les émotions. / Early adversity (EA) has been shown to be a potent risk factor in the development of psychopathologies associated with a deregulation of the physiological stress system as well as cognitive functions. However, studies report divergent results as to the direction of the association between EA, the secretion of cortisol (the main stress hormone in humans) and the nature of these cognitive dysfunctions in adulthood. The Life cycle model of stress underlines the importance of considering the moment at which EA first occurred, given that the brain regions that are necessary to regulate the stress response and that are dense in cortisol receptors (the hippocampus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex) do not develop at the same rhythm. In order to test the Life cycle model of stress, the aim of this thesis is to evaluate the modulating role of the age at first exposure to EA on the physiological stress system as well as on the cognitive processes sustained by the hippocampus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex in healthy adults. Precisely, the goal of the first study was to determine if the minimal age at exposure to EA modulated basal and reactive cortisol levels in 85 healthy adults, and to compare these results to a competing model: the Accumulation model (which suggests that the number of EA predicts patterns of cortisol dysregulations). To do so, we measured basal cortisol using saliva samples collected at home as well as in response to a validated psychosocial stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test. We have shown that minimal age at exposure to EA does indeed modulate the basal and reactive cortisol patterns in healthy adults, and that this model is a better predictor of the physiological stress system as opposed to the Accumulation model measured using the Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire. Indeed, results showed that although the number of EA was not associated with patterns of basal or reactive cortisol secretion, adults first exposed to EA between the ages of 3 and 7 – an important time window for amygdala development – showed greater cortisol awakening response and lower cortisol reactivity relative to those first exposed to EA before 3 or after 7. Then, given that the hippocampus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex possess cortisol receptors that are affected by the chronic secretion of stress hormones following EA, the goal of the second study was to evaluate the effect of minimal age at exposure to EA on the cognitive processes sustained by these structures. To do this, we measured declarative memory (hippocampus), attentional bias to threat (amygdala) and emotional regulation (frontoamygdala connection) as a function of minimal age at exposure to EA in the vi same healthy subjects. Results revealed increased attentional bias to threat in women first exposed to EA after 8 years (prefrontal cortex and frontoamygdala connectivity development). Overall, the results of this thesis partially support the Life cycle model of stress and highlight the importance of considering the age at first exposure to EA when investigating the long-lasting effects of EA on physiological stress and cognitive processes in healthy adults.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the alterations and relationships among training variables, performance variables, and physiological variables. Nine (9) D-1 collegiate throwers and 4 control subjects participated in the study. The throwers participated in an 11-week periodized resistance training and throws program. Volume load was recorded throughout the study. Measurements of maximal strength (isometric mid-thigh pull), vertical jumping ability, dynamic mid-thigh pulls (across a spectrum of loads), hormones (testosterone and cortisol), and adipokines (adiponectin, leptin, and resistin) were taken at weeks 1, 7, and 11. The throwers demonstrated several statistically significant alterations over time for performance variables. The throwers realized increases across time in maximum strength and peak power output. Hormone values did not exhibit statistically significant changes across time; however, there were trends across time for cortisol, the testosterone:cortisol ratio and adiponectin. These alterations would indicate a more anabolic environment and less obesity associated inflammation.

Salivary cortisol has been measured extensively in developmental research over the last three decades. The purpose of this article is to summarize the contributions to and limitations of salivary cortisol measurement in developmental research and propose future directions for research that includes salivary cortisol measurement. The properties of cortisol, the history of its burgeoning popularity, and the utility and limitations of (a) cortisol as a biological indicator, (b) saliva as a source of cortisol, and (c) various saliva collection methodologies are described. The current state of understanding about what is and is not reliably predictable from cortisol is summarized and the value of salivary cortisol measurement in developmental research is discussed, addressing whether methodology could be driving research design. Recommendations are made for streamlining study design and reporting within developmental research.

Saliva, popular for the measurement of cortisol concentrations, can be easily and painlessly obtained, so that study participants or medical patients may collect their own samples. This raises the question of whether cortisol concentrations are stable if samples are mailed unfrozen. Seventeen adult subjects (five males, 12 females, mean age=27.82, SD=7.55) participated in this study. One saliva sample from each subject was split. Half were frozen within 1 h. The other was exposed to conditions that would mimic a postal trip, including wide variations in temperature and movement over 5 days. A statistically significant positive correlation between cortisol concentration in the frozen and nonfrozen saliva samples was found (R2=0.92, p<.001). A paired t-test revealed no significant difference between samples (t(16)=1.56, n.s.). This indicates that cortisol concentrations are stable during extended periods without freezing when exposed to widely varying temperatures and movement.

Research documenting the level of work-related stress among therapy dogs is limited. This research was designed to measure salivary cortisol in working therapy dogs. Certified handler/dog (Canis lupus familiaris) teams were recruited to participate from teams currently volunteering in the Tri-Cities, Tennessee area. Male and female dogs of various sizes and breeds were recruited. Ten dogs contributed fivesaliva samples. Dogs were fasted for one hour prior to procedure. Samples were collected over a continuum of events, for comparison of salivary cortisol levels in multiple environments. Samples were collected as follows: (1) sample in the dogs’ homes, (1)sample upon arrival at the “work” place, (1) sample just prior to leaving the “work” place, (1) sample just prior to being groomed and (1) sample taken at the dogs’ regular veterinarians’ offices. This design provided 1 control sample, 2 work samples, and2 samples that may be indicative of elevated stress. It was hypothesized that: 1) Salivary cortisol concentrations will be higher in samples collected during grooming and at a veterinary clinic than in samples collected at home, and 2) Salivary cortisol concentrations will be lower in samples collected during “working” conditions than in samples collected during grooming and at a veterinary clinic. Saliva was collected by placing a Salimetrics Children’s Swab (P/N 5001.06) [dimensions 8 x 125 mm] into the dog’s mouth until saturated, or less than four minutes. After examination of the descriptive statistics of (n=10) across five different environmental conditions, it was decided that one of the cases represented an outlier and was removed from data as subsequent analysis revealed a cortisol level that was more than 23 standard deviations away from the mean. Three dogs had at least one sample with insufficient quantity of saliva for analysis, and were removed from the data. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to compare salivary cortisol levels during different environmental conditions (pre-therapy, post-therapy, home, veterinary clinic, and groomer). There was not a significant main effect for condition, Wilks’ Lambda =.299, F (9, 2) =1.17, p=.51,multivariate partial eta squared = .70. The hypotheses were not supported. This research suggests that salivary cortisol of working therapy dogs is not significantly different than home, veterinary, or grooming conditions.

Abstract available through the Developmental Psychobiology.

Abstract available through the Developmental Psychobiology.

No description available.