<p> Hardiness is personality trait that buffers against stress-related illnesses. Researchers have further described hardiness as the willingness to pursue challenges, transform them, and make them work for an individual. Hardiness has been shown to buffer against depression, anxiety, and self-esteem (Maddi, 2002; Maddi et al., 2011; Maddi &amp; Khoshaba, 2001). Given that the hardiness theory has been criticized in previous studies, (Benishek &amp; Lopez, 1997), the theoretical framework of this study will be through resilience theory (Holling, Gunderson, &amp; Ludwig, 2002). Resilience theory aims to understand the foundation and role of change that it is transforming in adaptive systems, allowing individuals to learn from past experiences and accept the inevitably of uncertainties in their future (Holling et al., 2002; Redman &amp; Kinzig, 2003). Few studies investigate hardiness among Black populations. The few that have, showed that hardiness positively correlated with the internalized multiculturalist aspect of racial identity (Whittaker and Neville, 2010) and the commitment component of hardiness was higher among a sample of Black college students compared to White college students (Harris, 2004). Given that hardiness is a buffer to stress-related illness, theoretically, it should be a buffer against race-related stress. Race-related stress refers to the daily experiences of racism that affect members in the Black community and negatively impacts mental and physical health (Harrell, 2000; Utsey &amp; Ponterotto, 1996). The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between hardiness, race-related stress, and racial identity on psychological health outcomes (i.e., depression, anxiety, self-esteem) among Black colleges students. These outcome variables were included particularly to see how they are impacted by race-related stress, and if hardiness buffers, or moderates, these relationships. In addition, previous studies were replicated looking at the moderating role of racial identity on the race-related stress and psychological health outcomes relationship.</p><p> In another test, findings also showed that hardiness served as a moderator for both the internalized afrocentricity subscale of racial identity and the perseverative cognition subscale of race-related stress on depression. Specifically, participants who were low on hardiness and high on afrocentricity reported higher levels of depression than those were high on both hardiness and afrocentricity. Similarly, participants who were higher on hardiness and high on perseverative cognition reported lower levels of depression than those who were low in both hardiness and perseverative cognition. Through replication attempts, the anticipatory body alarm response subscale of race-related stress on trait anxiety was moderated by the immersion-emersion anti-White subscale of racial identity. Participants who were high in anti-White attitudes and high on anticipatory body alarm response reported higher levels of trait anxiety than those who were low on anti-White attitudes and low on anticipatory body alarm response. This finding replicated previous studies by Franklin-Jackson and Carter (2007) that found that the internalized stages of racial identity (i.e., afrocentricity and multiculturalist) were significant and positive buffers on the race-related stress and psychological health outcomes. However, neither the total hardiness nor the hardiness subscales scores significantly correlated with any of the race-related stress subscales.</p><p> Implications suggest that the hardiness measure may not be as generalizable to members in the Black community if considering the added layer of race-related stress because hardiness did not significantly correlate with any of the race-related stress subscales. Hardiness may help to buffer depression the type of race-related stress and racial identity profile. In looking at racial identity stages, anxiety may be buffered when one is out of the anti-White stage of racial identity. It is recommended that University counselors, professors, and/or administrators take this into account when working with this specific population on psychological health outcomes. Further, their level of hardiness should continue to be emphasized and acknowledged as strength-based protective factors in University settings.</p>

<p> Physical maltreatment places adolescents at risk for negative behavioral and emotional problems. Resilience focuses on the processes that allow these adolescents to cope following the risk and minimize the potential negative outcomes. Parental and peer support were expected to protect against physical maltreatment in adolescents as support by existing empirical evidence in the adolescence and maltreatment literature. Further, these chosen interpersonal protective factors were expected to be more effective in reducing negative outcomes in females than males as current literature suggests females are more interpersonally focused. Secondary data analysis was conducted on data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being (NSCAW) national longitudinal dataset. Participants in the current study included 374 physically maltreated adolescents, aged 11 to 17.5 years old (M<i>age</i> = 13.68, <i>SD</i> = 1.85). The sample included 227 females and 147 males. Foster care was exclusionary. Structural equation techniques including model comparison, mediation analysis, and gender code analysis were conducted to study the research hypotheses. Parental and peer support protected against behavioral and emotional problems in physically maltreated adolescents. Peer support had a greater impact on reducing emotional and overall (i.e. behavioral and emotional problems combined). Parental support was more protective than peer support against behavioral problems. No significant differences were found between the dual domain model (i.e. measuring behavioral and emotional problems separately) and the overall model (i.e. the combination of the two domains). Females were more likely to endorse behavioral and emotional problems. Both structural models (i.e. dual domain and overall) consisting of the interpersonal factors of parental and peer support exhibited better fit in females than males. Mediation analysis was not significant for peer support. Maltreatment was not significantly associated with peer support. A partial mediation effect was found for parental support. Clinical implications include the promotion of positive peer interactions through school programs and counseling techniques, and increasing use of peer support groups. Clinical and school counselors would benefit from the development of programs and interventions focused on teaching how to provide positive parental support to minimize behavioral issues and effectively spend time with adolescents. Additional theoretical implications and limitations of the study are identified.</p>

<p> Qualitative research methods will be used to explore the role that counseling theory plays in the overall philosophical perspective and implementation of supervision from the perspective of counselor supervisors. Of interest is how counselor supervisors perceive counseling theory to impact the implementation of supervision, how counselor supervisors perceive counseling theory to impact the development of the supervisee, and how counseling theory is integrated into other theoretical models of supervision. Implications and recommendations for current practice and subsequent research will be provided. </p>

The objective of this study was to utilize self-report, peer-report and teacher-report techniques in measuring (reporting) anger in children; and to determine the intercorrelation between these three approaches in order to determine their relationship to one another and in turn, to assess these reporting tools. Subjects were 38 male and female emotionally disturbed children from the Virginia Treatment Center for Children, a short-term residential psychiatric facility in Richmond, Virginia. There were 28 boys and 10 girls, with a mean age of approximately 11 years. Each student was given the Children's Inventory of Anger (CIA) and the Peer-Report of Anger (PR). The teachers were given the Teacher's Rating Scale of Student's Anger (TR) to complete for each of their students and again approximately 6 weeks later for test-retest information. Each instrument was explained in detail in the present paper. Means and standard deviations for all scales were reported as were the Pearson Product-Moment Correlations among the 3 scales and race, sex and age. A significant negative correlation between the CIA and age was found. The CIA was also significantly negatively correlated with the PH non-anger expression; while the CIA was significantly positively correlated with the PH anger problems. Other significant correlations were: a positive one between the TH and the PH anger problems; and, a negative one between the PH anger problems and the PH non-anger expression. The various relationships and their possible explanations were discussed in depth. It was noted that although the significant correlations obtained in this study were relatively low and were not consistent with the predictions under the hypothesis, the data and the relationships between report forms were in the direction predicted. In this case, the magnitude of each correlation may not be of prime importance because each form may have measured a different aspect of anger as per Ullman's (1951) findings. Thus, combining the three techniques gives a broad picture of each individual's degree of anger problems. Problems and suggestions for future investigations in this area were briefly mentioned.

<p> This study is purposed to understand how theoretical adherence and practice of Ephesians 5:21-33, a passage of scripture from the Bible, influenced Evangelical Christians report of overall marital satisfaction and commitment to their current marriage. To assess level of theoretical adherence and practice, the researcher developed the Biblically-based Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire (BBMAQ), which categorized participants into four different groups based on their reported levels of theoretical adherence, or THEO score, and their reported level of practice of each verse, PRAG score, of Ephesians 5:21-33. Scores on the BBMAQ were correlated with participant/s scores on the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale and Investment Model-Commitment subscale. Additionally, the BBMAQ is a newly developed measure so the purpose of the study was also to better understand the factor structure of the BBMAQ, to assess if the BBMAQ could in fact properly categorize participants based on theoretical adherence and practice. The study results revealed that overall, those who both theoretically endorsed and practiced this scripture reported marginally significantly higher marital satisfaction than those who reported they did not theoretically endorse this passage of scripture, but did practice it currently in their marriage. Additionally there was a marginally significant higher commitment level for those who theoretically adhered to and practiced the passage of scripture, than those who reported that they did theoretically endorse this passage, but did not report practicing it. Additionally the exploratory factor analysis showed that the BBMAQ revealed two factors, thus validating its ability to properly categorize.</p>

<p> The current study examined the attitudes and intended behavior of college students toward seeking help on campus for various hypothetical psychological and physical concerns. Participants (n = 84) were undergraduate students at a Bethel University, a Midwestern Evangelical Christian university who completed three measures: (a) a scale examining intention to seek help from various sources; (b) the Religious Commitment Inventory (RCI-10); and (c) the Attitudes Towards Seeking Professional Help Scale (ATSPHS). Results showed a majority of students prefer to seek help from their friends and family members. Their willingness to seek help from professional sources was lower than anticipated based on previous studies with similar populations while their religious commitment levels were consistent with other religious college student populations. The results suggest students at this university are unlikely to see a need to seek professional help, but when they do, they will choose appropriate resources on campus. These results may help college counseling centers to orient students to resources on campus, which are appropriate for their concerns. The study confirmed previous research suggesting that college students have a preference for seeking help from friends and family as opposed to professional resources.</p>

The aim of the present study was to gain a further understanding of first-generation college students (FGCS) in comparison to their non-FGCS peers. The study examined both groups in relation to the following variables: resilience levels, perceived social support, perception of barriers, and negative career thoughts. Specifically, the goal was to understand how resilience levels and perceived social support were related to perception of barriers and negative career thoughts. General group differences on resilience levels, perceived social support, perception of barriers, and negative career thoughts were explored using a one-way ANOVA. Then, multiple regressions were used to examined whether resilience level and perceived social support could predict perception of barriers and negative career thoughts. The 10-Item Connors-Davidson Resilience Scale (CDRISC; Campbell-Sills & Stein, 2007) was used to examine resilience levels. The Social Support Appraisal Scale (SSA; Vaux et al., 1986) was used to examine perceived social support. The Perception of Barriers Scale (POB; Luzzo & McWhirter, 2001) was used to examine perception of barriers. The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI; Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996) was used to examine negative career thoughts. Participants (n = 272) for the study were recruited from a large, southeastern, public university, specifically from the university’s College of Education and the Center for Academic Retention and Enrichment (CARE). CARE’s mission is to recruit and support FGCS. There were 101 FGCS and 171 non-FGCS included in the sample. The results indicated that there were no statistically significant differences between groups on resilience levels, perceived social support, and negative career thoughts. There were statistically significant differences between groups on perception of barriers with non-FGCS perceiving more barriers than FGCS. The multiple regression revealed that resilience level and perceived social support predicted 9.1% of the variance in perception of barriers and 15.3% of the variance in negative career thoughts. A discussion regarding the findings of the study, limitations, and implications for theory, practice and future research are offered. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2017. / May 3, 2017. / Includes bibliographical references. / Janet G. Lenz, Professor Directing Dissertation; Kathy Guthrie, University Representative; Debra Osborn, Committee Member; James Sampson, Jr., Committee Member.

This project examined the increased tendency towards suicidality in cisgender LGB college students as compared to their cisgender heterosexual counterparts. The responses of 1,503 LGB college students to a survey distributed by the National Research Consortium of Counseling Centers in Higher Education (RC) in 2011 were analyzed. Given the increased propensity toward suicidal distress in LGB college students, this study next sought to elucidate the mechanics by which suicidality evolves in this population. The objective of this project was to determine whether minority stress factors (sexual orientation concerns, discrimination, victimization, and campus climate) have a relationship with suicidal ideation in LGB college students as mediated by the interpersonal factors of thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and sense of coherence. This project tested relationships drawn from the minority stress model, the interpersonal theory of suicide, as well as sense of coherence to understand their impact on the development and escalation of suicidal ideation in LGB college students. It was found that the stressors of sexual orientation concerns, victimization, and discrimination acted directly on thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness. In addition, the stressors indirectly influenced the development of suicidality through thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness. Campus climate was found to be a protective factor for LGB students. Sense of coherence was not only a mediator of the stress factors, but also acted directly upon thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness. Implications for higher education administrators and campus mental health professionals, as well as directions for future research are also discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2018. / July 16, 2018. / college students, LGB, minority stress, sense of coherence, suicide / Includes bibliographical references. / Martin Swanbrow Becker, Professor Directing Dissertation; Thomas Joiner, University Representative; Steven Pfeiffer, Committee Member; Jeannine Turner, Committee Member.

More than half of adolescents in the United States participate in organized sports (Kann et al., 2014); however, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC; 2016) found that recently increasing rates of athlete dropout were associated with poor coping skills. Before sports leaders and coaches can successfully implement trainings and programs aimed to improve athletes’ coping effectiveness, researchers must first examine the coping processes of youth athletes in order to then inform the development of evidence-based interventions (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). To better conceptualize and understand coping among youth athletes, this dissertation studied 310 youth volleyball athletes immediately following a High Performance tryout. The athletes were compared across gender (male vs. female) and skill level (less-skilled vs. more-skilled) regarding their self-reported coping experience according to the following target variables: problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, avoidance-focused coping, stress appraisal, perceived controllability, perceived coping effectiveness, and performance self-rating. Correlational analyses revealed perceived controllability was significantly associated with coping function across the entire sample, such that greater perceived controllability was associated with more problem-focused coping, more emotion-focused coping, and less avoidance-focused coping. A 2x2 MANOVA comparing the target variables across gender and skill level revealed a significant main effect for gender, but the interaction and main effect for skill level were not significant. Post-hoc analyses indicated that males were more likely to use avoidance-focused coping compared to females. Finally, regression analyses were conducted to examine whether coping function (i.e., problem-focused, emotion-focused, or avoidance-focused), perceived controllability, and the interaction between these two variables predicted perceived coping effectiveness and performance self-rating, respectively. None of the interactions were significant, indicating that the relationships between coping function and perceived coping effectiveness were not moderated by perceived controllability; this was also true for the models predicting performance self-rating. Therefore, the interaction terms were excluded from the regression analyses, and the adjusted models indicated that greater perceived controllability, problem-focused coping, and emotion-focused coping predicted greater perceived coping effectiveness. Greater perceived controllability also predicted higher performance self-rating. Taken together, these results suggest some differences in coping according to gender and skill level. The results also suggest that youth athletes may not conceptualize effective coping according to Folkman’s (1991; 1992) matching hypothesis of the goodness-of-fit model of coping effectiveness. This dissertation’s findings have important implications for future research examining coping in sport as well as for the development and implementation of mental skills training programs for youth athletes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2018. / April 30, 2018. / coping, stress appraisal, youth sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Martin Swanbrow Becker, Professor Directing Dissertation; Karen Randolph, University Representative; Steven Pfeiffer, Committee Member; Graig Chow, Committee Member.

The present study investigated relationships among variables of career decidedness, satisfaction with career choice, goal instability, decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and external conflict through structural equation modeling in a sample of college students (N = 278). The Occupational Alternatives Question (OAQ; Zener & Schnuelle, 1972; modified by Slaney, 1980) and Satisfaction with Choice Question (SCQ; Zener & Schnuelle, 1972; modified by Holland, Gottfredson, & Nafziger, 1975), were used to measure individual’s career decidedness (i.e., decided or undecided), satisfaction with career choice (i.e., satisfied or dissatisfied). The Goal Instability Scale (GIS; Robbins & Patton, 1985) was used to measure the latent variable of goal instability. The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI; Sampson, Peterson, Lenz, Reardon, & Saunders, 1996a), with Decision Making Confusion (DMC), Commitment Anxiety (CA), and External Conflict (EC) subscales were used to measure latent variables of decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, and external conflict, respectively. Results indicated that (a) decision-making confusion and commitment anxiety had direct effects on goal instability; (b) decision-making confusion and commitment anxiety had direct effects on career decidedness; (c) decision-making confusion, commitment anxiety, external conflict, and goal instability had direct effects on satisfaction with choice. A discussion of limitations and implications for theory, research, and practice are provided. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2017. / June 1, 2017. / Includes bibliographical references. / James P. Sampson, Jr. , Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Debra Osborn, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Gerald Ferris, University Representative; Janet Lenz, Committee Member.