The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of cow age on grazing distribution relative to mountain riparian areas. In each of two years, sixty cow-calf pairs were stratified by age into the following treatments: 1) thirty first calf heifers (442 kg, body condition score (BCS)=4.5), and 2) thirty mature cows (5-7 years of age; 569 kg, BCS=5.0). From late July to early September, treatments were randomly assigned to four pastures with treatments reversed in Year 2. Analysis of hourly cattle locations observed during 4-d periods early (d 15 to d 18) and late (d 36 to d 39 in Year 1; d 29 to d 32 in Year 2) during the grazing bout revealed a three-way interaction between cow age, time of day, and grazing bout (P<0.01). In the morning hours of the early grazing bout, mature cows distributed farther from the stream (P<0.10), and occupied the riparian vegetation type less (P<0.10) than first calf heifers. No differences (P>0.10) in distribution occurred between age classes from 1300 h until dark. Similarly, during the late grazing bout, no differences were observed (P>0.10) between the distribution of the age classes. While no difference (P=0.20) occurred between age classes in total minutes spent grazing, first calf heifers foraged longer during the morning and evening bouts (P<0.10). The forage utilization pattern and the fecal deposits within 1-m of the stream were not different (P>0.10) between age classes. While mature cows tended (P=0.17) to have higher dry matter intake (DMI), first calf heifers consumed more feed per unit of body weight (BW) (P=0.08). Though first calf heifers tended (P=0.13) to gain more BW, no differences occurred between age classes in BCS change (P=0.69), or calf average daily gain (ADG) (P=0.34). In summary, mature cows distributed farther from water and spent more time outside the riparian vegetation zones during the morning hours early (d 15 to d 18) in the trial compared to first calf heifers. / Graduation date: 2003

No description available.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this study was to determine the rate of transfer of melamine as fertilizer ingredient to kikuyu pastures and if melamine would be transferred from the fertilized pasture to cow’s milk. Three trials were conducted in the study, viz. a pilot pot plant trial, an applied pasture trial and a milk production trial. Melamine is a commercially available industrial chemical with a high nitrogen content. Large quantities of melamine waste can sometimes be incorporated into crop and pasture fertilizers due to the high N content. An initial pot plant trial with kikuyu was conducted to determine whether melamine would be absorbed as such from the soil to the plant material. The pots were fertilized in the form of melamine adulterated Chinese maize Gluten 60, at a rate equivalent to 8.8 kg of melamine/ha. Results indicated that melamine was indeed absorbed and 7 days after fertilization, the concentration of melamine in the grass was 228 mg/kg. An applied pasture trial was then conducted were three pastures of 0.3 ha each were used. One pasture served as a control and received N fertilization in the form of LAN at a rate of 40 kg N/ha. The other two pastures also received LAN, but with 10% (Treatment 1) and 20% (Treatment 2) of the LAN-N substituted with melamine-N. All three pastures also received P-fertilization in the form of Single Superphosphate at a rate of 20 kg P/ha and KCl fertilizer at a rate of 50 kg K/ha. Pasture samples were taken once a week for 10 weeks, each time at the exact same spot in each camp. Samples were dried and finely milled before analysis via LC-MS/MS for melamine content. The initial concentration of melamine in the grass of Treatment 2 was higher than that in the grass of Treatment 1. The rate at which melamine decayed in the plant material was found to be quite similar for the two melamine treatments. In this trial, melamine took around 10 weeks to reach undetectable levels in the grass. It was concluded that melamine was absorbed as such from the soil by pasture grass when included in a fertilizer. For the milk production study, eighteen lactating Holstein cows, 60 ± 5.1 (SE) DIM, with a daily milk production of 36.5 ± 2.0 (SE) kg/d and weighing 609 ± 12.8 (SE) kg, were stratified according to milk production and then randomly allocated to three groups of six cows. The groups were then randomly allocated to the three pastures used in the applied pasture trial. Cows were kept on the melamine fertilized pasture for 9 days, in which they were allowed to graze the pasture for approximately 10 hours each day. After the 9 day period, melamine was withdrawn by placing the cows on the control pasture that did not receive melamine contaminated fertilization for another 7 days. During these 16 days, milk was collected twice a day, viz. during the morning and afternoon milkings. Milk samples of each cow were sub-divided into two samples, one was preserved with potassium dichromate and analysed for milk composition and the other was frozen until analysed for melamine by LC-MS/MS. For the duration of the trial, melamine containing milk was destroyed in order to prevent it from contaminating milk collected from the rest of the herd. Results from the analysis for melamine confirmed that melamine was transferred from melamine fertilized pasture to milk. In this study, it took 6 days from melamine withdrawal for melamine to reach undetectable levels in the milk. It was also found that the melamine fertilized pasture did not have any significant effect on the average milk production and milk composition of the cows. The aim of the study was met and it was confirmed that melamine can be transferred from fertilizer to the soil, to the pasture and to the milk of cows grazing these pastures. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die tempo van oordrag van melamien as bemestingstof na Kikuyu weiding te bepaal, asook om te bepaal of melamien oorgedra sal word vanaf die bemeste weiding na melk. Drie proewe is uitgevoer wat ‘n potplant loodsproef, ‘n toegepaste weidings proef en ‘n melkproduksie proef ingesluit het. Melamien is ʼn kommersieël-beskikbare industriële chemikalieë met ʼn hoë stikstof inhoud. Groot hoeveelhede van melamien-afval kan soms in kunsmis ingesluit word vir die bemesting van gewasse en weidings, weens die hoë stikstof inhoud van melamien. ʼn Potplant loodsproef met Kikuyu is uitgevoer om te bepaal of melamien vanaf die grond deur die plantmateriaal geabsorbeer word. Melamienbemesting is in die vorm van vervalste Chinese mieliegluten 60 toegedien teen ʼn hoeveelheid gelykstaande aan 8.8 kg melamien/ha. Die resultate van hierdie proef het getoon dat melamien wel deur die plantmateriaal geabsorbeer is en 7 dae nadat bemesting toegedien is, was die konsentrasie van melamien in die gras 228 of mg/kg. ʼn Toegepaste weidingstudie is uitgevoer waar drie kampe van 0.3 ha elk gebruik is. Een van die kampe het as ʼn kontrole gedien en het stikstof bemesting in die vorm van KAN teen 40 kg N/ha ontvang. Die ander twee kampe het KAN bemesting ontvang waar 10% (Behandeling 1) en 20% (Behandeling 2) van die KAN-N deur melamien-N vervang is. Al drie kampe het ook fosfaatbemesting in die vorm van Enkel Superfosfaat ontvang teen 20 kg P/ha, asook KCl kunsmis teen 50 kg K/ha. Weidingmonsters is eenmaal per week op dieselfde plek in elke kamp geneem vir 10 weke nadat bemesting toegedien is geneem. Monsters is gedroog en daarna fyngemaal voordat dit vir melamieninhoud geanaliseer is met behulp van LC-MS/MS. Die aanvanklike melamienkonsentrasie in die gras van Behandeling 2 was hoër as die in die gras van Behandeling 1. Die tempo waarteen die melamienkonsentrasie in die plant materiaal afgeneem het, was baie dieselfde vir Behandelings 1 en Behandeling 2. Dit het ongeveer 10 weke geneem voordat die melamien in die gras nie-waarneembare vlakke bereik het. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat melamien wat in die vorm van kunsmis toegedien word, as sodanig uit die grond geabsorbeer word deur die gras. Vir die melkproduksiestudie is agtien lakterede Holsteinkoeie, 60 ± 5.1 (SE) dae in melk, met ‘n daaglikse melkproduksie van 36.5 ± 2.0 (SE) kg/dag en ‘n liggaamsmassa van 609 ± 12.8 (SE) kg, volgens hul melkproduksie gerangskik en ewekansig in drie groepe van ses koeie elk ingedeel. Die groepe is daarna ewekansig aan die drie kampe, wat in die toegepaste weidingstudie gebruik is toegedien. Die koeie is vir 9 dae op die melamienbemeste weidings gehou, waartydens hulle toegelaat is om vir ongeveer 10 ure elke dag te wei. Na die tydperk van 9 d, is die koeie vanaf die melamienbemeste weidings onttrek deur hulle op die kontroleweiding te plaas vir ʼn verdere 7 dae. Gedurende hierdie 16 dae is melkmonsters tweekeer per dag geneem, tydens die oggend- en die middagmelkings. Die melkmonsters van elke koei is vervolgens onderverdeel in twee monsters, waarvan een met kaliumdichromaat gepreserveer is vir die beplaing van melksamestelling, terwyl die ander een gevries is totdat dit later vir melamien inhoud ontleed is met behulp van LC-MS/MS. Melk van die koeie wat op die melamienweidings gewei het, is weggegooi om te voorkom dat melk van die res van die kudde gekontamineer kon word. Die resultate van die melamienanalises het getoon dat melamien oorgedra word vanaf die melamienbemeste weiding na die melk. Tydens hierdie studie het dit 6 dae geneem vandat koeie vanaf die melamienbemeste weidings onttrek is, totdat die melkmelamien nie-bepaalbare vlakke bereik het. Daar is bevind dat melamienbemeste weidings geen betekenisvolle uitwerking op die gemiddelde produksie en samestelling van die melk gehad het nie. Die doel van hierdie studie is bereik en daar is getoon dat melamien vanaf kunsmis na die grond, na die gras en na die melk oorgedra kan word wanneer koeie op weidings geplaas word wat melamienbemeste kunsmis ontvang het.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Kikuyu over-sown with ryegrass forms the basis of pasture based systems in the Southern Cape. During early spring, energy is the first limiting nutrient in kikuyu/ryegrass pasture, supplementation is thus essential. Supplementation consists mainly of high starch concentrates (high maize inclusion), which is expensive and could negatively affect rumen parameters. The objective of this study was to determine if milk production could be improved or maintained, and if the rumen environment would be improved, by replacing high starch concentrates with low starch (high by-product) concentrates for dairy cows on kikuyu/ryegrass pasture. Forty-five multiparous, high producing, lactating Jersey cows [body weight, 340 ± 34.7 kg; milk yield (MY), 19.6 ± 2.23kg/d; days in milk (DIM), 153 ± 33.5; lactation number, 3.6 ± 1.85; (mean ± SD)] were used in the production study. A randomised block design was used. The forty-five cows were allocated to fifteen groups of three each (blocking) on the basis of MY, DIM, and lactation number. Cows from each group were randomly allocated to one of three treatment groups (high starch, medium starch and low starch concentrate supplementation). Cows were fed 6kg (3kg during each milking) concentrate per day and were allocated fresh pasture ad lib after each milking. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) found in milk yield and fat corrected milk yield between treatment groups. Milk fat percentage was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the low starch treatment than in the high starch treatment. Milk fat yield was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in both the low starch and the medium starch treatment when compared to the high starch treatment. Milk protein and lactose percentages, as well as milk urea nitrogen and somatic cell count, did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between treatments. Live weight change, as well as body condition score change, was unaffected (P > 0.05) by treatments indicating body reserves were not used to maintain milk production in the low starch treatment. A rumen metabolism study was also done with ten lactating, cannulated Jersey cows [body weight, 332 ± 56.3 kg; MY, 17.3 ± 1.73kg/d (mean ± SD)] were used. The cows were divided into two groups of five each, on the basis of lactation number, DIM, and MY. The five cows from each group were randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups (high starch and low starch concentrate supplementation) and used in a cross-over design. Cows were fed 6kg concentrate per day and were allocated fresh pasture ad lib after each milking. The volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the high starch treatment when compared to the low starch treatment. The individual VFA’s, acetic-, propionic- and butyric acid concentrations were also significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the high starch treatments when compared to the low starch treatment. The acetic to propionic acid ratio was unaffected (P > 0.05) by treatment. Rumen ammonia-nitrogen concentration was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the high starch treatment. Rumen pH was unaffected (P > 0.05) by supplementation type. The in sacco dry matter and neutral detergent fibre digestibilities of the kikuyu/ryegrass pasture were unaffected (P > 0.05) by treatment type. Results indicated that milk production could be maintained with low starch concentrates which also improved milk composition. Results further suggested that the rumen environment was relatively unaffected by low starch concentrate supplementation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kikoejoe, oorgesaai met raaigras, vorm die basis van weidingstelsels in the Suid-Kaap. Tydens die lentemaande is energie die eerste beperkende voedingstof op kikoejoe/raaigras weidings, wat kragvoeraanvulling noodsaaklik maak. Aanvulling bestaan grootliks uit hoëstysel-kragvoer (hoë mielieinhoud) wat nie net duur is nie, maar dit kan ook die rumenomgewing benadeel. Die doel van die studie was om vas te stel of melkproduksievlakke onderhou kan word en of rumenomgewing verbeter kan word deur die vervanging van hoëstysel-kragvoer met laestysel-kragvoer (hoë neweprodukinhoud) vir melkkoeie op kikoejoe/raaigras weidingstelsels. Vyf-en-veertig meervoudige pariteit-, hoë produserende, lakterende Jerseykoeie [liggaamsmassa, 340 ± 34.7 kg; melkproduksie, 19.6 ± 2.23kg/d; dae in melk, 153 ± 33.5; laktasienommer, 3.6 ± 1.85; (gem ± standaardafwyking)] is gebruik vir die produksiestudie van die proef. Daar is gebruik gemaak van ‘n ewekansige blokontwerp. Die vyf-en-veertig koeie is opgedeel in vyftien groepe van drie elk, gebaseer op melkproduksie, dae in melk en laktasienommer. Koeie in elke groep is ewekansig aan een van drie behandelings (hoëstysel-, mediumstysel- of laestysel-kragvoeraanvulling) geallokeer. Koeie is daagliks 6kg (3kg tydens twee milkings) kragvoer gevoer en vars weiding was ad lib beskikbaar na elke melking. Daar was geen beduidende verskil (P > 0.05) in melkopbrengs of vet-gekorrigeerde melkopbrengs tussen die drie behandelings nie. Bottervetpersentasie was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die laestyselbehandeling in vergelyking met die hoëstyselbehandeling. Bottervetopbrengs was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in beide die laestysel- en mediumstyselbehandelings in vergelyking met die hoëstyselbehandeling. Melkproteïen- en melklaktosepersentasies, asook melkureumstikstof en somatise seltelling, was onveranderd (P > 0.05) tussen behandelinge. Liggaamsmassa en liggaamskondisietelling het geen verskille (P > 0.05) getoon tussen behandelings nie, wat daarop dui dat liggaamsreserwes nie gebruik is om melkproduksie in die laestyselbehandeling te onderhou nie. ‘n Rumenmetabolismestudie is ook uitgevoer met tien lakterende, gekannuleerde Jerseykoeie [liggaamsmassa, 332 ± 56.3 kg; melkproduksie, 17.3 ± 1.73kg/d (gem ± standard afwyking)]. Die koeie is in twee groepe van vyf elk verdeel, gebasseer op laktasienommer, dae in melk en melkproduksie. Die vyf koeie van elke groep is in ‘n omslagontwerp gebruik en is ewekansig aan een van twee behandelings (hoëstysel- of laestysel-kragvoeraanvulling) geallokeer. Koeie het daagliks 6kg kragvoer ontvang en vars weiding was ad lib beskikbaar na elke melking. Die vlugtige vetsuurkonsentrasie was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die hoëstyselbehandeling as in die laestyselbehandeling. Die individuele vlugtige vetsure naamlik asynsuur, propionsuur en bottersuur, was ook beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die hoëstyselbehandeling as in die laestyselbehandeling. Die asynsuur- tot propionsuurverhoudings het geen verskille (P > 0.05) tussen behandelings getoon nie. Rumen-ammoniakstikstof was beduidend hoër (P < 0.05) in die hoëstyselbehandeling as in die laestyselbehandeling. Rumen-pH het geen verskille (P > 0.05) getoon tussen behandelings nie. Die in sacco droëmateriaal- en neutraalbestande veselverteerbaarhede van kikoejoe/raaigras weiding het geen verskille (P > 0.05) tussen behandelings getoon nie. Die resultate het aangedui dat melkproduksie onderhou kan word en dat melksamestelling verbeter kan word met laestysel-kragvoeraanvulling. Resultate het ook daarop gedui dat die rumenomgewing nie noodwendig verbeter word deur die aanvulling van laestysel-kragvoer vir koeie op kikoejoe/raaigras weidings nie.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In vitro and in situ methods using the in sacco technique have a wide application in ruminant nutrition as they allow the degradability and quality of forages and ruminant diets to be determined quicker and at a lower cost than in vivo methods. These trials make use of artificial fibre bags, made of polyester (dacron) or nylon which are available in variable pore sizes. Results from such degradability trials are of great value to feed formulation programs such as AMTS.cattle and CPM Dairy and the more accurate the results are obtained from such trials the more accurate feed formulation models are enabling the ruminant nutritionist to formulate the best diet possible to reach the genetic potential of ruminants. The accepted method for in sacco trials (NRC, 2001) requires that the feed samples are ground through a 2 mm screen. This usually results in a variety of particle sizes, including a significant amount of extremely fine particles. Research has, however, shown that these fine particles can potentially be washed out of the dacron bags that are used in in sacco degradability trials. This would result in an overestimation of the soluble and rapidly fermentable nutrient fractions. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of fine particle removal from ground forage samples on the chemical composition and in vitro dry matter (DM) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) degradability of forages. Lucerne hay, oat hay and wheat straw samples were sourced from seven different locations in the Western Cape. Samples were milled through a 2 mm screen and then sieved through either 150 μm, 125 μm or 106 μm. All fractions were analysed for DM, crude protein (CP), NDF, fat and ash. Based on the NDF content of the original samples, four samples from each forage type were selected for in vitro trials to determine DM and NDF disappearance over time. Samples were incubated for 0, 6, 24 and 48 hours in an ANKOM Daisy II incubator. Significant variation occurred within forage types in terms of chemical composition. Fine particle removal had no effect on the NDF content of lucerne hay and wheat straw, but sieved oat hay fractions had a higher NDF content than the un-sieved samples. The NDF content was on average 635.9 for the sieved OH fractions, whereas the NDF content of the un-sieved samples was 606.8. The CP content of sieved oat hay (61.4 on average) and wheat straw fractions (47.7 on average) were lower than the un-sieved fractions (65.7 for OH and 55.4 for WS), whereas for lucerne hay, sieving had no effect on CP content. Dry matter and NDF disappearances were significantly higher for the un-sieved samples than for the sieved fractions for all three forage types at all incubation times, which indicates an overestimation of the soluble and readily digestible forage fractions. Compared to sieved samples, DMD values at 0 hours (washing only) of the un-sieved samples were, on average, 13.8% higher for lucerne hay, 27.3% for oat hay and 44.7% for wheat straw. At 48 h, the overestimation of lucerne DMD for the un-sieved samples was between 4.0% (compared to 106 μm sieve) and 7.3% (compared to 150 μm sieve). This over-estimation in the un-sieved samples was carried over to all four time points. No significant differences between the fractions (150, 125 and 106) were found within a forage type at all incubation times. The estimated degradation rates and the predicted digested proportions were also significantly higher for the un-sieved fractions compared to the sieved fractions. It was concluded that fine particle removal from forage samples would result in more accurate estimations of in sacco nutrient degradability. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In sacco in vitro- en in situ-metodes word dikwels toegepas in die studie van herkouervoeding aangesien hierdie metodes vinniger, meer effektief en meer ekonomies is as in vivo-metodes. Hierdie studies maak gebruik van kunsveselsakkies, gemaak van poliëster (dacron) of nylon wat beskikbaar is in verskeie poriegroottes. Resultate van sulke verteringsproewe is belangrik vir toepassing in voerformuleringsprogramme soos AMTS.cattle en CPM Dairy. Die resultate wat deur hierdie studies verkry word, is belangrik vir akkurate voerformulering deur formuleringsmodelle en stel die herkouervoedingkundige in staat om die ideale voer te formuleer vir die manifestering van die dier se genetiese potensieaal. Die aanvaarde in sacco-metode (NRC, 2001) vereis dat voermonsters deur ‘n 2 mm sif gemaal word wat ‘n groot verskeidenheid partikelgroottes tot gevolg het met ‘n beduidende hoeveelheid baie fyn materiaal. Navorsing het getoon dat hierdie baie fyn partikels uit die dacronsakkies gewas kan word tydens in sacco verteringstudies, met die gevolg dat die oplosbare en vinnig-verteerbare fraksie oorskat kan word. Die doel van die huidige studie was om die invloed van die verwydering van fyn partikels op die chemiese samestelling van ruvoermonsters te bepaal, asook die in vitro droë materiaal (DM) en neutraal-onoplosbaare vesel (NDF) verteerbaarheid daarvan. Monsters van lusernhooi, hawerhooi en koringstrooi, afkomstig van sewe verskillende lokaliteite in die Wes-Kaap, is deur 'n 2 mm sif gemaal en sub-monsters is deur ‘n reeks siwwe met poriegroottes van 150 μm, 125 μm of 106 μm gesif. Al die fraksies is geanaliseer vir DM, ruproteïen (RP), NDF, vet en as. Vier monsters van elke voertipe is op grond van die NDF-inhoud geselekteer vir in vitro-studies om die DM- en NDF- verteerbaarheid oor tyd te bepaal. Monsters is vir 0, 6, 24 of 48 uur geïnkubeer. Die resultate het getoon dat daar betekenisvolle variasie in chemiese samestelling binne ruvoertipes voorgekom het. Die verwydering van die fyn partikels het geen invloed die NDF-inhoud van lusernhooi en koringstrooi gehad nie. Wat hawerhooi betref, was die NDFinhoud van die gesifte monsters egter betekenisvol hoër in vergelyking met die ongesifte monsters. Die NDF inhoud was gemiddeld 635.9 vir die gesifte monsters en vir die ongesifte monsters 606.8. Sifting het geen invloed op die RP-inhoud van lusernhooi gehad nie, maar vir hawerhooi (61.4 gemiddeld) en koringstrooi (47.7 gemiddeld) was die RP-inhoud van die gesifte monsters betekenisvol laer as dié van die ongesifte monsters (65.7 vir hawerhooi en 55.4 vir koringstrooi). In vergelyking met die gesifte monsters, was die in vitro DM- en NDF-verteerbaarhede betekenisvol hoër vir die ongesifte monsters vir al drie ruvoertipes by alle inkubasietye. Hierdie resultate bevestig ‘n oorskatting van oplosbare en maklik verteerbare fraksies in gemaalde voermonsters. In vergelyking met die gesifte monsters, was die DMV-waardes van die ongesifte monsters by 0 ure (slegs gewas) gemiddeld 13.8% hoër vir lusernhooi, 27.3% vir hawerhooi en 44.7% vir koringstrooi. Na 48 h inkubasie was die oorskatting van lusern DMV vir die ongesifte monsters tussen 4.0% (vergeleke met die 106 μm sif) en 7.3% (vergeleke met 150 μm sif). Die oorskatting is oorgedra na al vier inkubasietye. Die resultate het geen noemenswaardige verskille tussen die fraksies (150 μm, 125 μm en 106 μm poriegroottes) van ‘n ruvoertipe by enige inkubasietyd aangedui nie. Die beraamde verteringstempo’s en verteerde fraksies was ook aansienlik hoër vir die ongesifte monsters in vergelyking met die gesifte monsters. Die gevolgtrekking is gemaak dat die verwydering van fyn partikels uit gemaalde ruvoermonsters die akkurate bepaling van in sacco verteerbaarheidswaardes verhoog.