The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a psycho-educational intervention program on the mental toughness of secondary school cricketers. The general aim of the study was to use psychological skills and psychological techniques to enhance the mental toughness of secondary school cricketers, within a psycho-educational framework. This general aim of the study was actualised by employing the following specific aims: • A literature review was conducted to explore the psycho-educational model. It was found that the psycho-educational model was an appropriate model to use as the framework of the intervention program. • The literature review investigated and evaluated different psychological skills and psychological techniques that influenced the mental toughness of cricketers positively. • A questionnaire was designed. This questionnaire (CMTQ) fulfilled the role of a psychological skills measuring tool. • A psycho-educational intervention program was designed around the findings of the literature study. • Guidelines were compiled to follow when coaching mental toughness to secondary school cricketers. • The intervention program was presented over a six week period. • An empirical study was conducted to evaluate the successfulness of the intervention program. The first phase of the empirical study was done before the presentation of the psycho-educational intervention program. The data suggest that Confidence and Motivation were the two main psychological skills that the participants employed in their mental game of cricket. The second phase of the empirical study was only done after the completion of the six week intervention program. The selected data analysis method employed to evaluate the effectiveness of the program was the t-test for dependant groups. v The results of the data analysis indicated that the participants in the experimental group improved in their mental toughness performance significantly. When the findings of the literature review and the results of the empirical study are combined, it appears as if this intervention program will have a positive influence on the cricket performance of secondary school cricketers. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Psychology of Education)

Coaches are constantly seeking more ecologically valid and reliable data to improve professional sporting performance. Using unobtrusive, valid and reliable mobile physiological monitoring devices may assist in achieving this aim. For example, there is limited information regarding professional fast bowlers in cricket and understanding this role during competitive in-match scenarios rather than in simulated bowling events could enhance coaching and physical conditioning practices. The BioharnessTM is a mobile monitoring device and assesses 5 variables (Heart rate [HR], Breathing frequency [BF], Accelerometry [ACC], Skin temperature [ST] and Posture [P]) simultaneously. Therefore, the aims of this research were to assess the effectiveness of the BioharnessTM mobile monitoring device during professional sporting performance using fast bowlers in cricket and this was to be achieved in five research studies. Study 1 presented the physiological profile of professional cricketers reporting fitness data with other comparable professional athletes, with a specific interest in fast bowlers who were to be the focus of this work. The 2nd and 3rd study assessed the reliability and validity of the BioharnessTM through controlled laboratory based assessment. For validity, strong relationships (r = .89 to .99, P < .01) were reported for HR, BF, ACC and P. Limits of Agreement reported HR (-3 ± 32 beat.min-1), BF (-3.5 ± 43.7 br.min-1) and P (0.2 ± 2.6o). ST established moderate relationships (-0.61 ± 1.98 oC; r =.76, P <.01). Reliability between subject data reported low Coefficient of Variation (CV) and strong correlations for ACC and P (CV < 7.6%; r = .99, P <.01). HR and BF (CV ~ 19.4%; r ~.70, P <.01) and ST (CV 3.7%; r = .61, P < .01), present more variable data. Intra and inter device data presented strong relationships (r > .89, P < .01, CV < 10.1%) for HR, ACC, P and ST. BF produced weaker data (r < .72, CV < 17.4%). Study 4 assessed reliability and validity of the BioharnessTM in a field based environment using an intermittent protocol. Precision of measurement reported good relationships (r = .61 to .67, P < .01) and large Limits of Agreement for HR (> 79.2 beat.min-1) and BF (> 54.7 br.min-1). ACC presented excellent precision (r = .94, P < .01). Results for HR (r = ~ .91, P < .01: CV <7.6%) and ACC (r > .97, P < .01; CV < 14.7%) suggested these variables are reliable in the field environment. BF presented more variable data (r = .46 - .61, P < .01; CV < 23.7%). In all studies, as velocity of movement increased (> 10 km.h-1) variables became more erroneous. HR and ACC were deemed as valid and reliable to be assessed during in-match sporting performance in study 5. This final study sought to utilise and assess the BioharnessTM device within professional cricket, assessing physiological responses of fast-medium bowlers within a competitive sporting environment, collected over three summer seasons. The BioharnessTM presented different physiological profiles for One Day (OD) and Multi Day (MD) cricket with higher mean HR (142 vs 137 beats.min-1, P < .05) and ACC (Peak acceleration (PkA) 227.6 vs 214.9 ct.episode-1, P < .01) values in the shorter match format. Differences in data for the varying match states of bowling (HR, 142 vs 137 beats.min-1, PkA 234.1 vs 226.6 ct.episode-1), between over (HR, 129 vs 120beats.min-1, PkA 136.4 vs 126.5 ct.episode-1) and fielding (115 vs 106 beats.min-1, PkA 1349.9 vs 356.1 ct.episode-1) were reported across OD and MD cricket. Therefore, this information suggests to the coach that the training regimes for fast bowlers should be specific for the different demands specific to the format of the game employed. Relationships between in-match BioharnessTM data and bowling performance were not clearly established due to the complexities of uncontrollable variables within competitive cricket. In conclusion, the BioharnessTM has demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability in the laboratory and the field setting for all variables (Heart rate, Breathing frequency, Accelerometry, Skin temperature and Posture) but with limitations for heart rate and breathing frequency at the more extreme levels of performance. Furthermore, taking these limitations into account it has successfully been utilised to assess performance and provide further insight into the physiological demands in the professional sport setting. Therefore, this work suggests that coaches and exercise scientists working together should seek to utilise new mobile monitoring technology to access unique insights in to sporting performance which may be unobtainable in the laboratory or a simulated field based event.

Male crickets produce a species specific song to attract females which in response move towards the sound source. This behaviour, termed phonotaxis, has been the subject of many morphological, neurophysiological and behavioural studies making it one of the most well studied examples of acoustic communication in the animal kingdom. Despite this fact, the precise leg movements during this behaviour is unknown. This is of specific interest as the cricket’s ears are located on their front legs, meaning that the perception of the sound input might change as the insect moves. This dissertation describes a methodology and an analysis that fills this knowledge gap. I developed a semi-automated tracking system for insect motion based on commercially available high-speed video cameras and freely available software. I used it to collect detailed three dimensional kinematic information from female crickets performing free walking phonotaxis towards a calling song stimulus. I marked the insect’s joints with small dots of paint and recorded the movements from underneath with a pair of cameras following the insect as it walks on the transparent floor of an arena. Tracking is done offline, utilizing a kinematic model to constrain the processing. I obtained, for the first time, the positions and angles of all joints of all legs and six additional body joints, synchronised with stance-swing transitions and the sound pattern, at a 300 Hz frame rate. I then analysed this data based on four categories: The single leg motion analysis revealed the importance of the thoraco-coxal (ThC) and body joints in the movement of the insect. Furthermore the inside middle leg’s tibio-tarsal (TiTa) joint was the centre of the rotation during turning. Certain joints appear to be the most crucial ones for the transition from straight walking to turning. The leg coordination analysis revealed the patterns followed during straight walking and turning. Furthermore, some leg combinations cannot be explained by current coordination rules. The angles relative to the active speaker revealed the deviation of the crickets as they followed a meandering course towards it. The estimation of ears’ input revealed the differences between the two sides as the insect performed phonotaxis by using a simple algorithm. In general, the results reveal both similarities and differences with other cricket studies and other insects such as cockroaches and stick insects. The work presented herein advances the current knowledge on cricket phonotactic behaviour and will be used in the further development of models of neural control of phonotaxis.

The significance of flows of temporary, skilled labour migrants under conditions of globalization is widely acknowledged. Using a case study of elite cricket professionals moving from the UK to Australia for a maximum duration of 6 months, out and return migration flows and processes are examined. In doing so, this thesis exposes migration motives, notably in relation to career progression and personal development, and the processes and regulations that control temporary sojourns. Furthermore, the discussion reveals important social, cultural, economic and familial impacts of undertaking temporary, skilled, international migration. Using this case study of a sport-led migration, a largely under-researched occupational sector in migration studies, a number of theoretical, conceptual and empirical contributions are provided, which advance knowledge of skilled, international migration. First, utilising Bourdieu's (1986) notions of capital as an analytical framework, the comparative importance of migration motives are emphasised. Second, it is shown that migration can be viewed as a normalised aspect of a skilled worker's career trajectory, and that desired outcomes can be achieved during increasingly temporary stays overseas. Third, a three phase model of the migration flow is adopted to enable the development of professionalization and migration within cricket to be examined. It is asserted that cricket, as a professional sport, has changed under conditions of globalization, alongside smaller scale developments initiated by both employers and intermediaries, and the migrant cricketers. It is concluded that these connections will have salience for the other skilled occupations identified in Salt's (1997) typology of highly-skilled migrants.

Animals must balance multiple, fitness-related traits in environments that are complex and characterized by co-varying factors, such as co-variation in temperature and food availability. Thus, experiments manipulating multiple environmental factors provide valuable insight into the role of the environment in shaping not only important traits (e.g., dispersal capacity or reproduction), but also trait-trait interactions (e.g., trade-offs between traits). We employed a multi-factorial design to manipulate variation in temperature (constant 28°C vs. 28±5°C daily cycle) and food availability (unlimited vs. intermittent access) throughout development in the sand field cricket, Gryllus firmus. We found that fitness-related, life-history traits and trait trade-offs can be developmentally plastic in response to variation in temperature and food availability. Variability in temperature and food availability influenced development, growth, body size, reproductive investment, and/or flight capacity, and food availability also affected survival to adulthood. Further, both constant temperature and unlimited food availability promoted investment into key components of somatic and reproductive tissues while reducing investment into flight capacity. We develop an experimental and statistical framework to reveal shifts in correlative patterns of investment into different life-history traits. This approach can be applied to a range of animal systems to investigate how environmental complexity influences traits and trait trade-offs.

A família Phalangopsidae, de distribuição tropical, constitui um dos maiores grupos de grilos, sendo a maior linhagem na região Neotropical. Nesta região, a subfamília Luzarinae apresenta a maior diversidade em número de espécies e adaptações ecológicas. Suas relações evolutivas, entretanto, em virtude da falta de hipóteses filogenéticas propostas para o grupo, são desconhecidas. Além disso, a terminologia empregada para a caracterização do complexo fálico é amplamente debatida. Baseando-se nesses problemas, o presente estudo teve como objetivo realizar a primeira análise cladística de Phalangopsidae utilizando caracteres morfológicos e genitais, com o objetivo de propor uma classificação supragenérica para este grupo. Uma vez que a terminologia para o complexo fálico dos grilos é debatida, foi necessário um estudo morfológico do complexo fálico com o objetivo de adequar a terminologia e propor algumas correções. Este estudo analisou o complexo fálico de grilos falangopsídeos e propôs as seguintes adequações para a terminologia genital: a presença de projeções ectofálicas ventrais em alguns táxons de Luzarinae, além da presença de uma projeção adicional em alguns grupos, como em Lerneca e gêneros próximos; a divisão da invaginação ectofálica em cinco partes: apódemas ectofálicos ventrais, arco ectofálico, projeções ectofálicas dorsais, projeções ectofálicas ventrais e dobra ectofálica; a descrição do esclerito endofálico deve considerar as projeções endofálicas medial e laterais. O estudo do complexo fálico permitiu levantar 83 caracteres genitais, os quais somados aos 59 caracteres de morfologia totalizaram 142 caracteres. A análise foi realizada com 60 espécies, sendo 5 no grupo externo e foram conduzidas buscas com pesagem igual e pesagem implicada, dos caracteres morfológicos e genitais e apenas dos caracteres genitais. As análises revelaram que Phalangopsidae e Luzarinae são monofiléticas. Além disso, baseado nos resultados de uma das análises conduzidas neste estudo, as seguintes alterações taxonômicas foram propostas para Luzarinae: o gênero Endophallusia de Mello, 1990 é considerado sinônimo júnior de Eidmanacris Chopard, 1956; a espécie Strinatia Teresópolis não foi agrupada junto às demais espécies de Strinatia e recomenda-se sua transferência para um novo gênero, a ser descrito; o gênero Endecous passa a agrupar apenas dois subgêneros, Endecous e Notendecous; propõe-se a criação de uma nova tribo, Aracambini trib. nov.; propõe-se a elevação do status de subtribo Lernecina para tribo Lernecini status nov.; e propõe-se o resgate da tribo Luzarini status nov. / The Family Phalangopsidae occurs in tropical areas of the world and stands as one of the major lineages of crickets. It is considered the largest taxon of crickets in the Neotropical Region. In the Neotropics, Luzarinae comprises the most diverse taxon in number of species and ecological adaptations. However, the evolutionary relationships between its clades, due to the lack of phylogenetic hypothesis proposed, are unknown. Furthermore, the terminology employed for characterization of male phallic complex is still debated and a revision of its terms is needed. Based in these issues, this study aims to perform the first cladistic analysis of Phalangopsidae using morphological and genital characters, in order to propose a suprageneric classification for this group. Since the terminology for phallic complex is still debated, it was necessary a morphological study of the male phallic complex, improving the terminology and proposing some corrections. Thus, the following corrections are proposed: the presence of ventral pseudepiphallic projections in some Luzarinae taxa, and the presence of an additional projection in some genera, as Lerneca and its related genera; the description of the ectophallic invagination must consider its five parts: ventral ectophallic apodemes, ectophallic arc, dorsal ectophallic projections, ventral ectophallic projections and the ectophallic fold; the description of the endophallic sclerite must consider its median and lateral projections. The study of the male phallic complex allowed the proposition of 83 genital characters. The cladistic analysis was performed using 142 characters (83 genital + 59 morphology) and 60 species, five species were used as outgroups. The analysis were performed using both equal weights and implied weights for the morphological + genital characters and only genital characters. The following taxonomic alterations were made based in one of the analysis: the genus Endophallusia de Mello, 1990 is considered a junior synonym of Eidmanacris Chopard, 1956; the species Strinatia teresopolis Mesa, 1999 was not grouped with the other species of Strinatia and it is transferred to a new genus, to be defined; the genus Endecous now comprises two subgenera, Endecous and Notendecous; a new tribe Aracambini trib. nov. is proposed; the elevation of status of subtribe Lernecina to tribe Lernecini status nov. is proposed; and the tribe Luzarini is erected, Luzarini status nov.

This thesis represents a comprehensive examination of the phonotactic behaviour (i.e. attraction to sound) of the female Gryllus bimaculatus under laboratory conditions. Chapter 2 is the first study to analyze the effect of substrate texture on walking performance in crickets. Substrate texture is found to play an essential role in the phonotactic responses of G. bimaculatus. Smooth substrate texture has a detrimental effect due to slipping, whereas a rough texture results in optimal walking performance due to the friction with the walking legs. Chapter 3 represents the first detailed lifetime study analysing phonotaxis in crickets. My results demonstrate that the optimal age to test phonotaxis in G. bimaculatus females is from day 7 to 24 after the final moult. I also found that selectiveness was persistent with age. These findings contradict the female choosiness hypothesis. This study is also the first to describe the effect of senescence on phonotaxis in insects, as responsiveness decreases with age. Chapter 4 compares the phonotactic behaviour of female crickets from different laboratory-bred colonies. From six tested cricket lab colonies, I found three groups statistically different from each other. Females raised under laboratory conditions at the University of Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin University were most reponsive at a frequency of 4.5 kHz, whereas females bred in Tokushima University in Japan were tuned towards a higher frequency of 5 kHz. These results suggest a degree of artificial allopatric speciation. Comparisons with crickets bred under low-quality conditions in a local pet shop demonstrate a loss of responsiveness, indicating that breeding conditions have a direct effect on phonotactic responsivity. Chapter 5 is the first study to report the presence of phonotaxis in males of G. bimaculatus. Previously it was unknown if G. bimaculatus males were able to perform phonotaxis, given that they were only recognised as endurance signal producers. In the present study, only 20% of the studied males (N=70) performed a weak phonotactic response. This finding has potential ecological implications in terms of male cricket territory establishment, and male-male interactions in the wild, which are discussed. Chapter 6 explores the song pattern recognition of the female G. bimaculatus by changing the duration of either the first, second or third pulse of the chirps. A long first pulse decreased the phonotactic response whereas phonotaxis remained strong when the third pulse was long. Chirps with three pulses of increasing duration of 5, 20 and 50 ms elicited phonotaxis, but the chirps were not attractive when played in reverse order. The data are in agreement with a mechanism in which processing of a sound pulse has an effect on the processing of the subsequent pulse, as outlined in the flow of activity in a delay-line and coincidence-detector circuit.

<div>The House Cricket (Acheta domesticus) is a promising alternative to traditional protein sources, as these insects produce over 12 times the mass of protein for a given mass of food/water when compared to cattle, while also producing lower amounts of greenhouse gases and NH3 emissions (Kim et al. 2017, Hanboonsong, Jamjanya and Durst 2013, Van Huis 2013). Additionally, previous studies have demonstrated significant emulsification and gelling properties of insect flours, such as from cricket, which has been attributed to the functional properties of the protein (Kim et al. 2017). Ground cricket flours contain significant quantities of both protein and fibrous polysaccharides, particularly chitin. Since chitin particles are also capable of preparing emulsions as a Pickering stabilizer, there remains a question on the relative role of the protein and chitin components in crickets for stabilizing emulsion products. Relative contributions of each component was identified by first isolating the water-soluble protein and water-insoluble chitin fractions from ground cricket flour and then determining their interfacial properties and stability of prepared oil-in-water emulsions. Dynamic interfacial tension measurements indicated significant surface activity of the protein fraction, while there was minimal evidence of significant surface pressure development in the presence of 5-10 μm chitin particles. 10 % (w/w) canola oil-in-water emulsions were prepared with 0.5-2% (w/w) of the water-soluble protein fraction and 5.29% (w/w) canola oil-in-water emulsions were prepared with 0.688% of the chitin fraction. Stability of the emulsions against creaming was between 75% and 90% for emulsions stabilized by the protein fraction over three weeks of storage and between 93% and 96% for emulsions stabilized by chitin over 24 hours of storage. Significant fractions of precipitate- and oil-layers found in chitin-stabilized dispersions was attributed to the presence of large chitin particles (79 μm volume weighted mean diameter) and inefficient adsorption to droplet interfaces during homogenization, respectively. Volume-weighted mean diameter of emulsified oil droplets remained at 17-24 μm among protein-stabilized (>1.5 wt%) emulsions over three weeks of storage but only 60 μm over 24 hours among chitin-stabilized emulsions. Light micrographs of emulsion droplets showed successful adsorption of chitin fractions to oil droplets in the emulsion layer, verifying their potential as Pickering stabilizers. These findings demonstrated that both water-soluble protein and chitin particles obtained from ground cricket flours are legitimate emulsion stabilizers, yet the chitin fraction is much less effective without a more intensive approach to reduce their particle size.</div>

Este estudo foi realizado em laboratório entre fevereiro de 1995 e dezembro de 1997. Os grilos (Strinatia brevipennis) foram coletados de diversas cavernas do Parque Estadual Intervales, no Vale do Ribeira, SP, e mantidos no porão do Edifício Ernesto Marcus, Departamento de Zoologia do IBUSP para estudo da história natural da espécie. Outra espécie de grilos (Endecous itatibensis) foi acompanhada devido a uma coleta acidental da mesma. As duas espécies foram mantidas separadamente, uma vez que a primeira não sobrevive em contato com a segunda. A reprodução de S. brevipennis ocorreu com sucesso em caixas de isopor, principalmente no verão. A reprodução de E. itatibensis, por outro lado, ocorreu apenas entre indivíduos mantidos livremente na câmara de criação, onde observou-se grande sucesso reprodutivo, com várias gerações e uma grande população proveniente de apenas uma fêmea. O período embrionário médio de S. brevipennis foi de 56 dias. O desenvolvimento pós-embrionário também foi acompanhado, onde observou-se provável variação no número de mudas (10 ou 11) antes de tornarem-se adultos. A identificação de macho e fêmea é facilmente observada nos três últimos instares ninfais e nos adultos através do surgimento do ovipositor (para ambas espécies) nas fêmeas, e das tégminas no último instar ninfal para S. brevipennis e no penúltimo para E. itatibensis nos machos. As fêmeas são ápteras nas duas espécies estudadas. A caracterização morfométrica mostra que os primeiros estágios da vida podem se confundir quanto às dimensões corporais para S. brevipennis. Nos últimos instares e adultos a caracterização torna-se mais facilitada através das medidas do comprimento do fêmur e da tíbia da perna III, e dos dimorfismos sexuais. / This study was conduced in laboratory between February 1995 and December 1997. The crickets (Strinatia brevipennis) have been collected in several caves from Parque Estadual Intervales, Ribeira Valley, São Paulo state. They were kapt in a room in the basement of Edifício Ernesto Marcus, Departamento de Aoologia IBUSP, to develop a study focusing their natural history. Another species of crickets (Endecous itatibensis) was studied due to an accidental collection. The two species were maintained in different compartments because the first did not survive whem in direct contact with the second. Reproduction of S. brevipennis was successful inside boxes, mainly during summer. Reproduction of E. itatibensis was only successful when animals were kept freely inside the compartment, where a large reproductive success for several generations was originated from a single female. S. brevipennis showed a mean period of embryonic development of 56 days. Post-embryonic development showed a variation of 10-11 molting events to achieve adulthood. Telling males from females is an easy task during the last three nymphal stages and among adults because of the development of ovipositor among females of both species; and development of mesothoracic wings during the last nymphal stage os S. brevipennis or the penultimate nymphal stage of E. itatibensis among males. Females are wingless in both species. Morphometric characterization showed that the first nymphal stages are hardly told from each other. Last stages and adults can be distinguished both from sexual dimorphisms and length of femur and tibia of leg III.

Although cricket is played around the world by all ages, very little attention has been focused on junior cricket. The research presented here evaluated the effects on junior cricket of reducing the pitch length, developed a method for scaling the pitch to suit the players and applied this method to the under-11 age group. In the first of four studies it was established that shortening the cricket pitch had positive effects for bowlers, batters and fielders at both club and county standards, consequently resulting in matches that were more engaging. The second study found that top under-10 and under-11 seam bowlers released the ball on average 3.4° further below horizontal on a 16 yard pitch compared with a 19 yard pitch. This was closer to elite adult pace bowlers release angles and should enable junior players to achieve greater success and develop more variety in their bowling. The third study calculated where a good length delivery should be pitched to under-10 and under-11 batters in order to provoke uncertainty, and also examined the influence of pitch length on batters decisions to play front or back foot shots according to the length of the delivery. A shorter pitch should strengthen the coupling between the perception of delivery length and appropriate shot selection, and the increased task demand should lead to improved anticipation; both are key features of skilled batting. In the final study a method of calculating the optimal pitch length for an age group was developed which used age-specific bowling and batting inputs. This was applied to scale the pitch for under-11s giving a pitch length of 16.22 yards (14.83 m), 19% shorter than previously recommended for the age group by the England and Wales Cricket Board. Scaled in this way across the junior age groups, pitch lengths would fit the players better as they develop, enabling more consistent ball release by bowlers and temporal demands for batters, as well as greater involvement for fielders.