Spohn and Holleran (2002) have stated that "little evidence exists that the crime control polices pursued during the past 20 years have produced a predicted reduction in crime (p. 336)." This sentiment has been voice by many researchers for the last 30 years. As early as 1973, the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, concluded that "the prison, the reformatory and the jail have achieved only a shocking record of failure (p. 358)," and recommended that "no new institutions for adults should be built" (p. 358). Notably absent from the literature are studies that examine the effectiveness of sentencing policies that incarcerate offenders with their effectiveness to reduce recidivism. This study responds to this void in the prior literature on incarceration and recidivism. The purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of Florida's Minimum 85% Sentence Served Law on recidivism rates. Specifically, what is the effect of the 85% law on the probability of recidivism among released inmates and does the effect vary across different demographic characteristics, offense categories or prior recidivism events? The major findings are that sentencing offenders to serve at least 85% of their court-imposed sentence significantly reduces the probability of recidivism regardless of the time served incarcerated. It was found that the 85% law reduces the likelihood of recidivism among violent and drug offenders. Moreover, when evaluating the effectiveness of the 85% law across different types of offender demographic characteristics it was found that the effect of the 85% law on recidivism was statistically greater for younger than older offenders, males than females and blacks than whites. However, the 85% law had an equivalent effect on recidivism for Hispanic's and non-Hispanics. Finally, the effect of 85% law in reducing recidivism is greater for those with more prior recidivism events. The findings from this study lend support that punishment certainty may explain the consistent impact of the 85% law on recidivism rates. Since the length of sentence and numerous known recidivism factors were controlled for, certainty of punishment may explain the findings. After serving 85% of their court imposed sentence some people may reason that the cost-benefit calculation of the consequence of doing another 85% of a sentence is too costly. While the 85% law has been shown to be an effective sentencing policy, as shown by the reduction in recidivism, it has not been determined what it is about the policy that reduces the likelihood of recidivism. However, these findings do suggest that states contemplating a move towards a more determinate sentencing strategy will not necessarily experience increased prison populations and the associated increase in correctional expenditures. The differential effects presented in this study suggest policymakers could change sentencing policies to those it has the biggest impact (i.e., age 20 to 40 year olds, those with prior recidivism events and drug or violent offenses). This would potentially reduce the growing impact on the prison system while maintaining public safety. Future studies should focus on the 85% laws theoretical underpinnings, cost-effectiveness, impact on crime rates, effect on ex-offender behavior and if the results found in this study can be replicated in other states. / A Dissertation Submitted to the College of Criminology and Criminal Justice in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2010. / April 1, 2010. / Policy, Recidivism, Sentencing / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas G. Blomberg, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joyce Carbonell, University Representative; William Bales, Committee Member.

Labeling theory studies have generally focused on the creation of secondary deviance through the process of internalizing the applied label. The combination of labeling theory studies focusing on secondary deviance and the belief that labeling theory was 'dead' as of the 1980s has created a dearth of research regarding the impact of labels on criminal or juvenile justice processing. The purpose of the current study is to determine if there is a relationship between the gang member label and juvenile justice decisions at three stages: (1) intake, (2) disposition, and (3) incarceration release. There are a total of five primary findings related to the impact of the gang member label on juvenile justice recommendations and incarceration length. Three of the five findings are significant (p<.05), including one intake decision, one disposition decision, and the length of incarceration. These three findings all support the hypothesis that the gang member label increases the severity of the recommendation and the number of days incarcerated. Variables representing the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice staffs' perception of offender attitudes are incorporated into the analyses to determine if these variables mediate the hypothesized relationship between the gang member label and juvenile justice decisions. The findings weakly support the hypothesis that perceptions of the offenders will partially mediate the relationship between the gang member label and recommendation severity or the number of days incarcerated. However, the variables only mediate a small portion of the impact of the gang member label on the dependent variables. Finally, interaction terms are included in the analyses to see if the hypothesized impact of the gang member label on juvenile justice decision-making varies based on individual characteristics (e.g., race, sex). The hypothesis that the impact of the gang member label will vary based on demographic characteristics is largely unsupported. / A Dissertation Submitted to the College of Criminology and Criminal Justice in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / April 19, 2010. / Labeling, Gangs, Juveniles / Includes bibliographical references. / Gary Kleck, Professor Directing Dissertation; Irene Padavic, University Representative; William Bales, Committee Member; William Doerner, Committee Member.

Research within the criminological literature has consistently found an association between drug use and crime. Despite this strong empirical association, however, debate still remains regarding the mechanisms responsible for the relationship between these behaviors. An obstacle to the study of this association has been that observational data are highly susceptible to confounding factors. Thus, relationships hypothesized to be causal based on observational data may in fact be spurious. One type of confounding factor that is especially important to understanding the drug–crime relationship is that of selection effects. Because substance use is not a randomly assigned event, it is likely that substance users and non-users differ on a number of important factors. These factors likely influence not only the likelihood of using drugs, but of participating in criminal and delinquent behavior as well. Those who make the decision to use drugs, then, may be more likely to engage in other types of antisocial behavior as well, regardless of whether substance use occurs. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), this thesis employs propensity score matching to explore the role of selection effects in the relationship between drug use and crime. Possible explanations for, and past research addressing, the drug–crime relationship will be reviewed. Following this, the sample, measures, and statistical analyses employed within the thesis will be introduced, and the results of the propensity score analyses will be explained. Finally, the conclusion of this thesis discusses key findings, the implications of these findings, and the study's limitations. / A Thesis Submitted to the College of Criminology and Criminal Justice in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2009. / June 8, 2009. / Crime, Substance Use, Drugs, Delinquency, Propensity Score Matching, Selection Effects / Includes bibliographical references. / Kevin M. Beaver, Professor Directing Thesis; Bruce Bullington, Committee Member; Daniel P. Mears, Committee Member.

This work shows that classical criminological doctrine has been misunderstood and that the consequences of this misunderstanding for contemporary criminological theory and research are grave. In particular, classical criminologists subscribe to a view of rationality that is strikingly different from that which is usually attributed to them. Classical criminologists deny that behavior is invariably rational, and hold that emotional considerations are determinative of the degree of rationality expressed in any given behavior. This view, called "emotional determinism", is used to generate a theory of criminal propensity that can be empirically tested. The theory is intended as a replacement for Gottfredson and Hirschi's 1990 low self-control theory, which, while influential, succumbs to the criticism that it is too heavily reliant on rational choice principles. Finally, the work suggests that the genuine distinction between classical and positivist criminologies consists in the fact that as empiricists classical criminologists are committed to holding that environmental forces can in principle be used to dissuade even the most committed of criminals. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / November 10, 2004. / Reality Principle, Positivist Criminology, Rational Choice Theory, Classical Criminology, Pleasure Principle, Criminal Propensity / Includes bibliographical references. / Daniel Maier-Katkin, Professor Directing Dissertation; Barney Twiss, Outside Committee Member; Cecil Greek, Committee Member.

Research shows that social-psychological factors, such as fear of victimization, influence public opinion and, in turn, social control policies. Using survey data, this study tests hypotheses from the instrumental model and the social sensibilities theory. The results show that respondents who fear victimization are more likely to be punitive while support for due process rights and liberties are related to less punitive attitudes. Race is also influential in predicting punitiveness. These findings help explain support for punitive social control policies and provides ways of understanding and making changes in policies. / A Thesis submitted to the College ofcriminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2006. / March 3, 2006. / Punitiveness, Social Control Policy, Public Opinion / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael D. Reisig, Professor Directing Thesis; Carter Hay, Committee Member; Daniel P. Mears, Committee Member.

Sentencing systems throughout the United States have experienced great change over the past 30 years. Sentencing policy is often the target of reform as policymakers, judges, and other judicial decision makers grapple with the issues of discretion, sentencing disparity, and sentence severity. Determinate sentencing systems, which regularly entail the use of sentencing guidelines, are commonly employed in an effort to address a number of policy goals. Among the objectives of sentencing reforms are the reduction or elimination of unwarranted sentencing disparity based on extra-legal factors such as an offender's race, gender, or location. Previous research reports mixed findings regarding the level and existence of unwarranted sentencing disparity. Little is known about the effect of policy transformations on the determinants of sentencing outcomes. The present study examines the influence of legal and extra-legal factors on sentencing outcomes in Florida under three distinct sentencing policies. The analysis indicates that legally prescribed factors are the primary determinants of sentencing across all three policies, but extra-legal influences operate to impact outcomes as well. Important differences across policies in the effects of both legal and extra-legal factors are also revealed. The evidence presented here suggests that highly deterministic sentencing policies are not necessarily more successful at reducing unwarranted sentencing disparity. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2005. / April 1, 2005. / Sentencing Guidelines, Sentencing / Includes bibliographical references. / Marc Gertz, Professor Directing Dissertation; Charles Barrilleaux, Outside Committee Member; William Doerner, Committee Member; William Bales, Committee Member.

The primary goals of this research were (1) to test the tenability of null associations between perception and reality of punishment and (2) to determine whether the effects of actual risks of punishment on perception of punishment are conditioned by socio-economic characteristics of an area. The importance of the first goal is fundamentally theoretical in that general deterrence mechanism is based on the assumption that perception at least roughly correspond with the reality of punishment. The significance of the second goal is quite practical since maximizing the deterrent effect of law enforcement activities is a major concern from a policy standpoint. The current study basically replicates what Kleck et al (2004) found using multilevel data. That is, I found no evidence indicative of suppression effects that could have nullified a presumably positive APL and PPL association. Even after excluding potential suppression effects originating from three county-level variables, I failed to identify any significant and positive relationship between APL and PPL. Whether for homicide, robbery, aggravated assault, or burglary, there was no evidence indicating a close correspondence between reality and perception across different punishment types. Moreover, as shown in results of individual-level interaction effects by respondents' past experience of arrest, HLM estimates among criminals and non-criminals were not significantly different. Criminals, who would be the most attentive to any changes in law enforcement activities in their areas, seemed not to be aware of the overall risks of punishment in their immediate environment. Tests of county-level interaction between APL and socio-economic conditions of counties such as the percentage of minorities, the unemployment or poverty rates depict a similar picture. Most of the county-level interactions were neither statistically significant nor theoretically consequential, regardless of the types of crime and punishment. Sizes of the interactions were close to zero as well. In short, residents' perceptions about actual levels of punishment were invariant regarding the conditions of the area in which they lived whether they were high minority, high unemployment or high poverty communities. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2005. / April 12, 2005. / Deterrence, Rational Decision Making, Punishment / Includes bibliographical references. / Gary Kleck, Professor Directing Dissertation; James Orcutt, Outside Committee Member; Theodore Chiricos, Committee Member; Spencer Li, Committee Member.

Decades of research from numerous academic fields has provided unequivocal support that both genes and the environment are critically involved in shaping human behavior. More recently, researchers have begun to explore the manner in which genetic and environmental factors intertwine to sculpt behavioral outcomes. A growing body of evidence suggests that the expression of certain genetic tendencies may be directly moderated by exposure to certain environmental conditions. Research on the interaction between genes and the environment is helping to shed light on the developmental origins of a number of pathological outcomes including mental illness, aggression, violence, and criminality. To this point, researchers have tended to focus almost exclusively on the capability of early-life environments to condition the effects of genes on behavior. While this line of inquiry has greatly increased the knowledge base concerning the development of deviant tendencies, there remains a need to examine whether alternative environmental pathogens condition genetic predispositions for deviance. Schools represent one type of environment that has been exhaustively examined by criminologists, and that has been consistently linked with the deviant behavior of adolescents. Currently, however, almost no evidence exists related to whether school conditions moderate genetic influences on adolescent misbehavior. Using data drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, the current dissertation addresses this question by examining the moderating effects of school environments on a range of antisocial outcomes. The results of the analysis revealed partial evidence that school-level factors condition the effects of genes on a range of antisocial behaviors. The implications of these findings for the field of criminology are discussed in detail. / A Dissertation submitted to the College of Criminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / June 4, 2010. / Behavior genetics, Schools, Antisocial Behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / Kevin M. Beaver, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lisa Eckel, University Representative; Eric A. Stewart, Committee Member.

Within the field of criminology, there is no shortage of theoretical perspectives. While these theoretical perspectives are quite diverse, they do share a common thread: an exclusive focus on social factors that contribute to criminal behavior. Despite the limited explanatory power of both classic and more recent criminological theories, an overt sociological focus persists within criminological theory. In direct contrast, the biosocial perspective offers a more comprehensive explanation of behavior, with a focus on both biological and environmental influences. Despite the contributions of the biosocial perspective in elucidating the underlying etiology of antisocial behavior, there is currently a paucity of theories which can be effectively situated within the biosocial perspective. In an effort to spark theoretical development within the biosocial perspective, this dissertation proposes a biosocial integration model which allows for various forms of theoretical development and integration. In addition, four mainstream criminological theories--rational choice theory, social learning theory, classic strain theory, and social bonding theory--were empirically examined using genetically sensitive research designs in an attempt to fit such theories within the biosocial perspective. The results revealed three key findings. First, nearly all (more than 80 percent) of the measures examined in this dissertation were significantly influenced by genes. Second, while multivariate regression models identified a large number of significant associations between key theoretical concepts and antisocial behavior, many of these associations fell from statistical significance after controlling for genetic and shared environmental influences. Third, even after controlling for genetic influences, some theoretical concepts were significantly associated with antisocial behavior and substance use. Additional models revealed that several theoretical concepts also significantly moderated genetic influences on the examined outcomes. The findings are contextualized within the extant literature and suggestions for future research and theoretical development are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the College of Criminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / May 22, 2014. / Behavior Genetics, Criminological Theory, Gene-Environment Interplay, Theoretical Integration / Includes bibliographical references. / Kevin M. Beaver, Professor Directing Dissertation; Stephen J. Tripodi, University Representative; William B. Bales, Committee Member; Thomas G. Blomberg, Committee Member.

Prior empirical research has shown that a large proportion of a city's total crime arises from a relatively small number of locations within its jurisdiction. Drawing from results of research on the distribution of crime in a handful of cities, scholars have suggested that this dramatic "concentration" of crime is likely to be comparable in cities across the U.S. Although evidence from existing research is compelling, there are theoretical reasons to believe that the concentration of crime may not be as invariant as suggested in the past. Additionally, the traditional measures of concentration utilized in prior research fail to account for how tightly clustered these high-crime places are within space, leading to a relatively ambiguous definition of the term concentration. Finally, there are theoretical reasons to believe that accounting for the concentration of crime may add to our knowledge on the factors which contribute to the between-city difference in crime. To date, this possibility has not been explored in prior research. Thus, our knowledge of the concentration of criminal activity and its consequences remains relatively limited. To expand our knowledge on the concentration of crime, this dissertation addresses two primary research questions: (1) Does the concentration of crime vary across cities?, (2) Does variation in the concentration of crime have a significant impact on between-city differences in crime? These questions are answered by first exploring the variation revealed from two measures that reflect slightly different dimensions of concentration (i.e. evenness and clustering), disaggregated by crime-type, for a relatively large sample of American cities. Subsequently, the study assesses the effects of these measures on between-city difference in city crime rates. Tract-level crime data drawn from the National Neighborhood Crime Survey, a multicity database on crime in 91 cities from across the country, provided the information from which the measures of concentration and clustering were created. In combination with city-level data on socioeconomic and demographic characteristics drawn from a number of sources, the impact of crime's concentration on city crime rates was then examined in an empirical context. Results indicate that the concentration of crime is not as invariant as suggested in prior research. Additionally, multivariate analyses indicate that greater concentration of homicide is associated with lower homicide rates. Similar findings are observed for robbery, though in this instance conclusions are sensitive to model specification and sample composition. No significant link is found between concentration and crime rates for assault and burglary. The implications of the results of this dissertation for theory and research on the concentration of crime and aggregate crime rates are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the College of Criminology and Criminal Justice in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 19, 2013. / Clustering, Concentration, Crime, Criminological Theory / Includes bibliographical references. / Eric Baumer, Professor Directing Dissertation; Mark Horner, University Representative; Eric Stewart, Committee Member; Brian Stults, Committee Member.