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The research described in this dissertation is the first evaluation of two-dimensional charge coupled devices (CCDs) for low light level analytical spectroscopy. The electro-optical properties of several unique two-dimensional CCDs are evaluated, including quantum efficiency, detector read noise, linearity, dynamic range, dark current, and blooming. Theoretical models describing the sensitivity and dynamic range of CCDs on a single detector element basis are developed. Based on this model and the characteristics of a CCD detector system built for this research, it is shown that a single detector element of a CCD has comparable or superior sensitivity than the most sensitive single channel detectors. The results of the CCD detector system applied to fluorescence, emission, absorption, and time and spatially resolved spectroscopies are presented. The charge binning readout mode, which combines charge packets from several detector elements into a single charge packet, is critically evaluated for increasing the sensitivity and dynamic range of spectroscopic measurements. Equations describing the sensitivity and dynamic range enhancement achieved through charge binning are derived and experimentally verified in atomic emission and molecular fluorescence spectroscopies. The results of operating the CCD in two specialized readout modes developed in this research termed high-speed framing and spectral framing are presented. High speed framing allows the CCD to rapidly acquire two-dimensional images with high sensitivity. The spectral framing readout mode enables the CCD to record time-resolved spectra at a rate of approximately one spectra every two microseconds with great sensitivity. The design and evaluation of a CCD based molecular fluorescence spectrograph using a mercury pen lamp excitation source is described. The limit of detection for anthracene is 1 x 10 ⁻¹²M and is superior to the results obtained by fluorometers employing laser sources and photomultiplier detection. The design and evaluation of a spatially resolving spectrograph for absorbance spectroscopy of optically dense films is presented. The measurement of the absorption spectra of spatially heterogeneous metal-phthalocyanine thin-film electrodes with peak absorbances greater than five absorbance units is described.

Theoretical and experimental techniques are developed to study three common approaches to focus error signal generation for optical data storage applications. Specifically, the astigmatic, obstruction knife edge (a.k.a. shaded aperture), and critical angle prism systems are studied. These techniques are then applied to a new focus detection system, based on a lateral shearing interferometer, developed by this author. The sensitivity of a given optical system to the primary design point, alignment errors, aberrations and optical recording medium topology are presented. A new approach to constructing the focus error signal for the astigmatic and interferometric techniques is presented which greatly reduces the alignment sensitivity.

This dissertation deals with the measurement of Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) and spatial noise in infrared CCD's. A new method for the measurement of MTF is presented, which uses the phenomenon of laser speckle. The instrument constructed has the advantages that it does not require components of high optical or mechanical quality, and it does not require precise alignment. There is only one moving part in the system. The results of this method are compared with results obtained from an interferometric technique and from an impulse response technique, and found to be in close agreement. The characterization of spatially-dependent noise is pursued via the formalism of Detective Quantum Efficiency and also via a two dimensional generalization of the classical representation for information capacity. Suggestions for improving the performance of the array as a signal processor are drawn from these considerations. Test results are presented for a 64 by 32 element infrared CCD of Schottky barrier construction.

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